Airborne radar measurements of ocean wave spectra and wind speed during the grand banks ERS‐1 SAR wave experiment

Abstract

Measurements of ocean directional wave spectra, significant wave height, and wind speed over the Grand Banks of Newfoundland were made using the combined capabilities of the radar ocean wave spectrometer (ROWS) and scanning radar altimeter (SRA). The instruments were flown aboard the NASA P‐3A aircraft in support of the Grand Banks ERS‐1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Wave Experiment. The NASA sensors use proven techniques, which differ greatly from SAR, for estimating the directional long‐wave spectrum; thus they provide a unique set of measurements for use in evaluating SAR performance. ROWS and SRA data are combined with spectra from the SAR aboard the Canadian Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS) CV‐580 aircraft, the first‐generation Canadian Spectral Ocean Wave Model (CSOWM) hindcast, and other available in situ measurements to assess the ERS‐1 SAR's ability to correctly resolve wave field components along a 200‐ to 300‐km flight line for four separate satellite passes. Given the complex seas present on the Grand Banks, the complementary nature of viewing the sea spectrum from the perspectives of multiple sensors and a wave prediction model is apparent. The data intercomparisons show the ERS‐1 SAR to be meeting the expected goals for measuring swell, but the data also show evidence of this remote sensor's inability to detect the shorter waves travelling in the azimuth or along‐track direction. Example SAR spectra simulations are made using a non‐linear forward transform with ROWS measurements as input. Additionally, surface wind and wave height estimates made using the ROWS altimeter channel are presented. These data demonstrate the utility of operating the system in its new combined altimeter and spectrometer configuration.     

Wind-wave relationship from SEASAT radar altimeter data

We present a nonlinear relationship between ocean surface wind at 10 m height (U ₁₀ ) and significant wave height of wind-generated gravity waves, (H _1/3)gw, over the open oceans using SEASAT radar altimeter data. The data represent a variety of fetches, durations and strength of winds. Concurrent measurement of significant wave height, (H _1/3 ), which may contain a measure of swell and U ₁₀ obtained from the processed geophysical data record (GDR) of the SEASAT radar altimeter were used in the analysis. The total wave energy, E _alt, characterised by altimeter H _1/3 measurements was compared with the energy of a fully developed sea, E _fd derived from U ₁₀ measurements using the Pierson-Moskowitz model. The criteria E _alt E _fd was used in data selection to minimise the influence of swell. (H _1/3)gw thus obtained was used in a regression in terms of U ₁₀ in a second-degree polynomial. Verification with independent radar altimeter data confirmed the validity of the proposed wind-wave model, which could be used for operational wave forecasting.     

The experimental oceanographic satellite Seasat-A

A Seasat-A Project was conceived and is being implemented to establish the utility of an array of microwave instruments in space for oceanic research and marine technology. The instruments include: a short-pulse radar altimeter, a wind-field scatterometer, an experimental synthetic-aperture imaging radar, a scanning multifrequency microwave radiometer, and a supporting visual and infrared radiometer. All weather, day-night measurements of sea-surface temperature, surface wind speed and direction, sea state and directional wave spectra will be made, the latter over limited areas and times because of operational limitations on the synthetic-aperture-radar instrument. Highly precise (&<0.1 m) range information from the radar altimeter, in combination with an accurate satellite emphemeris, will be used to infer dynamic departures of sea level from the marine geoid produced by tides, currents, and storm surges. Sea ice will be observed by the synthetic-aperture radar, radar altimeter and the scanning multifrequency microwave radiometer, with particular emphasis on demonstrating their capability to determine polar ice coverage, dynamics and navigability.The satellite will be launched into a high-inclination (108 °), non-sun-synchronous, nearly-circular 800 km orbit in May of 1978. The orbit is such that a dense network traced out by the subsatellite point (18.5-km equatorial separation of ascending orbits) will be obtained in 152 days for geodesy. The satellite is designed for a minimum lifetime of one year; with expendables, including orbit adjust capability, for three.All data, except those obtained from the synthetic-aperture radar, will be collected globally, and returned, as measured, first by a 25 kbps data stream, and then after playback at a rate of 800 kbps from the on-board tape recorder. Synthetic-aperture radar data will be returned in real time only, over a 20-MHz analog telemetry link. We expect that satellite data will be distributed through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations Environmental Data Service. Processed data are expected to be generally available through this agency within a very few months of launch, following preliminary assessment of instrument operation and evaluation of performance.     

Validation of Sea Level Data in the East Asian Marginal Seas： Comparison between TOPEX／POSEIDON Altimeter and In-Situ Tide Gauges

In an effort to assess the reliability of satellite altimeter systems, the authors conduct a comparative analysis of sea level data that were collected from the TOPEX/POSEIDON (T/P) altimeter and 10 tide gauges (TG) near the satellite passing ground tracks. The analysis is made using datasets collected from marginal sea regions surrounding the Korean Peninsula at T/P cycles of 2 to 230, which correspond to October 1992 to December 1998. Proper treatment of tidal errors is a very critical step in data processing because the study area has very strong tide. When the T/P data are processed, the procedures of Park and Gamberoni (1995) are adapted to reduce errors associated with the tide. When the T/P data are processed in this way, the alias periods of M2, $2, and K1 constituents are found to be 62.1, 58.7, and 173 days repectively. The compatibility of the T/P and TG datasets are examined at various filtering periods.The results indicate that the low-frequency signals of the T/P data can be interpreted more safely with longer filtering periods (such as up to the maximum selected value of 200 days). When RMS errors for the 200-day low-pass filter period are compared with all 10 tidal stations, the values span the range of 2.8 to 6.7 cm. The results of a correlation analysis for this filtering period also show a strong agreement between the T/P and TG datasets across all stations investigated (e.g., p-values consistently less than 0.001). Hence according to the analysis, the conclusion is made that the analysis of surface sea level using satellite altimeter data can be made safely with reasonably extended filtering periods such as 200 days.     

On Measurements of the Tide at Churchill,Hudson Bay

Since the late 1990s the semi-diurnal tide at Churchill, on the western shore of Hudson Bay, has been decreasing in amplitude, with M₂ amplitudes falling from approximately 154?cm in 1998 to 146?cm in 2012 and 142?cm in 2014. There has been a corresponding small increase in phase lag. Mean low water, decreasing throughout most of the twentieth century, has levelled off. Although the tidal changes could reflect merely a malfunctioning tide gauge, the fact that there are no other measurements in the region and the possibility that the tide is revealing important environmental changes calls for serious investigation. Satellite altimeter measurements of the tide in Hudson Bay are complicated by the seasonal ice cover; at most locations less than 40% of satellite passes return valid ocean heights and even those can be impacted by errors from sea ice. Because the combined TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason-1, and Jason-2 time series is more than 23 years long, it is now possible to obtain sufficient data at crossover locations near Churchill to search for tidal changes. The satellites sense no changes in M₂ that are comparable to the changes seen at the Churchill gauge. The changes appear to be localized to the harbour, or to the Churchill River, or to the gauge itself.     

Ocean wave heights measured by a high resolution pulse-limited radar altimeter

Radar measurements of wave height are compared with independent measurements made during the JONSWAP-2 experiment by Waverider and pitch-roll buoys, a shipborne wave recorder and a laser profilometer. The radar data were recorded by a Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) nanosecond-pulse X-band radar altimeter flown in a NASA C-54 aircraft at 3-km altitude under various wind and sea conditions. Averages of 800 pulses of the pulse-limited altimeter data were used to calculate maximum-likelihood estimates of significant wave height (SWH) and skewness of the sea-surface height distribution. The mean values of the radar-estimated SWH were in good agreement with the other measurements. The standard deviation of the values of the radar measurements was typically 10% of the average wave height. A two-dimensional computer simulation of the sea surface indicates that the major portion of the observed standard deviation is attributable to the relatively small sea-surface area illuminated by the radar (125 m × 900 m) rather than to instrumental error. Increasing the number of pulses averaged reduced the variance in the estimates without changing the means. The mean value of the skewness parameter was generally near zero but the standard deviation was typically 0.25. The estimate of SWH did not change when the skewness parameter was constrained to zero.     

Direct assimilation of altimetric differences using the Kalman filter

One method that has been proposed for avoiding the effects of geoid error in the use of satellite altimeter data in oceanography is the use of temporal differences of the data, either along repeat tracks or at points where ascending and descending orbital passes cross. Here, the Kalman filter for this special case is derived and its properties examined. The special form of the data does not lead to additional computational workload, as one might expect. The question of observability, i.e., whether temporal differences alone are sufficient to determine the model state uniquely, is discussed, and criteria for observatility are derived in terms of the properties of the dynamical model.     

广东中部地区雷电和CINRAD雷达回波的统计关系

应用2004年4～8月广州雷达资料和广东省电力部门闪电资料,采用闪电位置资料与雷达回波强度相叠加的方法进行统计。结果表明,负闪频次的值偏多时,既不在低层的弱回波上,也不在高层的强回波上,而是在中间层4～16层(2～14 km)的12～45 dBz较强回波上。在6～14层(3～11 km)10～35 dBz回波上,广东中部地区负闪面积偏大。在第1～10层(0.5～7 km)44～51 dBz强回波上,出现负闪雷电的概率是0.4～0.7。     

卫星和雷达资料在暴雨数值预报中的应用研究

采用美国风暴分析预报中心开发的中尺度模式（Advanced Regional Prediction System,ARPS）的资料分析系统ADAS（ARPS Data Analysis System）,把中国CINRAD/SA、SB多普勒雷达反射率、风云-2E卫星的红外和可见光资料引入模式初始场,利用高分辨率中尺度模式WRF对2012年7月21日中国华北地区暴雨过程进行数值模拟。结果表明：加入雷达和卫星资料的WRF数值模拟,由于修正了中低层水汽,对降水系统预报有一定的调整,预报的降水落区位置和降水量中心值更接近实况;同时加入卫星和雷达资料同化后,明显改善了WRF降水系统预报偏慢的情况。雷达与卫星资料同化对WRF模式降水预报影响不同,雷达资料影响的时间短,只在6 h内预报起作用,而卫星资料影响时间较长,能够改善24 h内的预报。加入卫星和雷达资料,修正了水汽场,使降水预报在开始时间、量级和范围上均有改善,更接近实况。     

雷达和卫星资料对江淮暴雨数值模拟的影响

将“713”测雨雷达和GMS卫星云图资料引入PSU／NCAR中尺度模型，以改变初始湿度场，对两个不同类型的江淮暴雨过程进行了数值模拟敏感试验，并与控制试验作了比较分析。结果表明：加入雷达和卫星资料，能通过水汽和辐合上升运动的调整有效降水过程，引入雷达和（或）卫星资料所产生的影响有所不同。     

High-intensity precipitation measurement using remote methods

Considered is a case of the cumulonimbus cloud development in the southwestern part of Saudi Arabia with a very high precipitation intensity. The height of the cloud top amounted to 14 km and the radar reflectivity, to 60 dBZ. Carried out is the comparison of remote methods of measuring the intensity of precipitation from the cloud under study: the radar (using the relationship between the reflectivity and precipitation intensity) and satellite IR-radiometric (based on the results of sounding with the SEVERI radiometer installed at the Meteosat-8 satellite) methods. A split-window technique was used for detecting the position of the cloud top from the radiometric observations. The analysis enabled to select the best relationships for estimating the precipitation intensity from the data of radar and satellite measurements. The computations based on these relationships correspond most closely to the ground-based measurements with the precipitation gage.     

星载雷达在订正地基天气雷达标定误差中的应用

在雷达反射率数据定量应用中,标定误差是导致结果产生偏差的重要原因之一。星载雷达（TRMM PR）长期工作的稳定性和连续性已被验证,本文将星载雷达数据转换到S波段,通过对比星载雷达和南京雷达同时段不同高度（相对于融化层的位置）不同降水类型（层云降水或对流降水）的数据,得到两部雷达对融化层以下层云降水的观测相关性高,差异稳定。通过对比分析星载雷达和南京雷达同时段零度层以下层状云降水的观测数据,得出两部雷达反射率因子值的回归关系式。以星载雷达观测数据为基准,使用该关系式对南京雷达反射率数据进行订正,并通过雨量计数据对订正结果进行验证,结果显示使用本文订正关系式订正后雷达估计的降雨量更接近雨量计的观测值。     

卫星雷达联合重构大尺度流域降水场

给出了一种用GMS-5卫星估计3h降水的方法,并利用地面测雨雷达和卡尔曼滤波器提取误差因子,用于在雷达探测范围以外校准卫星估计的降水,从而获得大尺度流域的(淮河流域)降水分布。在史灌河子流域的比较试验表明：卫星雷达联合重构的降水场具有比卫星估计降水更高的精度,3h降水估计的相对误差从31％下降到13％,和地面降水场的相关系数也有明显提高。     

雷达和卫星资料在中尺度模式中的初步应用

本文利用非静力中尺度模式MM5对1998年7月20日－21日发生在湖北东部地区的特大暴雨过程作数值模拟，同时将不同时间的雷达和卫星资料适时加入模式改变当时模式中的水汽场，并与控制试验进行比较分析，结果表明：加入雷达和卫星资料后的数值模拟，由于修正了暴雨区及其邻近区域对流层中低层水汽场，雨区位置和雨量中心值比仅用探空资料的控制试验更接近实况。雷达与卫星资料引入模式对于24小时降雨产生的效果不同，雷达资料的影响是局部的，范围较小，卫星资料影响范围较大，而且适时加入雷达、卫星资料能够及时通过水汽场修正，使24小时预报的雨区范围和中心强度与实况更加接近，而二者结合起来的效果与降水系统的特征有关。     

Oceanic tides over the Newfoundland and Scotian Shelves from TOPEX/POSEIDON altimetry

Abstract

A modified response analysis in the form of an orthotide parametrization is used to derive major semi‐diurnal and diurnal tidal constituents over the Newfoundland and Scotian Shelves from TOPEX/POSEIDON altimeter data. The orthotide formulation simultaneously solves for eight major semi‐diurnal and diurnal constituents, and has an accuracy of better than ～1.5 cm for each constituent. Tidal elevations are derived from the altimeter data on the ascending and descending satellite ground tracks, and interpolated using the method of statistical interpolation. The semi‐diurnal constituents (M₂, S₂ and N₂) compare favourably with available in‐situ observations and a numerical model. The diurnals (K₁ and O₁) are not as accurate as the semi‐diurnals, especially in the nearshore environment. The paper demonstrates the ability of TOPEX/POSEIDON altimetry to provide accurate tidal data over a continental shelf.     

GPM卫星和地面雷达对江苏盐城龙卷风强降水估测的对比

为综合评估卫星和天气雷达在2016年6月23日盐城龙卷风期间的强降水过程的降水估测精度,以国家级雨量站观测数据为基准,结合相关系数(CC)、相对误差(RB)、均方根误差(RMSE)以及分级评分指标,利用S波段的天气雷达定量降雨估测产品(RQPE)和全球降水观测计划多卫星融合产品(IMERG_FRCal,IMERG_FRUncal,IMERG_ERCal)进行比较。结果表明,雷达和卫星的累积降水量与雨量站的空间相关性很强(相关系数大于0.9),基本上能捕捉到整个降水过程的空间分布。降水主要分布在江苏省北部,但卫星高估了江苏省东北部强降水中心的降水量;对于小时时序区域平均降水,卫星高估了降水,而雷达低估了累积降水量。综合降水中心区域分析,IMERG的强降水区域降水量与雨量站的时间序列的偏差显著;RQPE在降水峰值达到之前及峰值之后与地面雨量站的变化趋势基本一致,但对降雨量峰值有明显的偏低。RQPE能较为准确地在时间上捕捉到降雨强度的变化趋势,但对于大雨及暴雨的估测能力不佳;RQPE的POD、SCI值都远远高于IMERG, FAR也较小。IMERG几乎未能监测到强降水的发生。总体上,RQPE对此次龙卷风强降水量的估测表现优于3种IMERG产品,特别是在捕捉强降水区域的空间分布方面,但对于强降水的估测能力仍需进一步改善。     

基于FY-4A卫星数据的强对流云团识别与监测

为解决强对流监测问题,克服地区亮温特征对卫星监测的影响,利用FY 4A卫星L1数据,结合滑动窗口方法和多通道动态阈值自动识别法,对典型强对流云团进行识别与监测。结果表明：1）多通道动态阈值自动识别方法结合滑动窗口方法,可避免人为设置阈值的主观性,整合强对流的区域识别结果,实现全国强对流云团监测。2）此方法具有良好的强对流云团识别效果,识别正确率达到89%;3）FY 4A卫星识别结果与雷达反射率高值区基本一致,能够准确监测强对流云团发生发展和移动的过程,具有较高的识别精度。     

闪电定位仪在人影作业中的应用研究

利用闪电定位仪系统所提供的多站综合定位资料和单站定位实况资料,结合9210系统所提供的卫星云图、雷达回波图以及T 213和日本的数值预报等资料,在做出24h降水预报的基础上,用闪电数据、云图等资料可制作未来3h降水预报。根据3h预报对作业点的作业条件进行指示,从而可为人影作业服务。经过试用验证表明,研究结果对人影作业有较好的指示意义。     

Computed and observed ocean topography: A comparison

This paper presents determinations of ocean topography using spacecraft altimeter techniques. The first direct spacecraft observations of sea-surface topography were made in late 1973 during the Skylab mission. Comparisons of the topography derived from the altimeter data with the computed topography based upon the Goddard Space Flight Center Earth Gravity Model, GEM-8, derived from satellite tracking data and surface gravity data show differences of a few meters.With the presently orbiting altimeter system on the Geos-3 spacecraft, relative variations over a few hundred kilometers along the orbital track can now be detected to a few decimeters. Numerous short-wavelength features which reflect large variations of the ocean floor have been observed to a relative precision of a meter or better with Geos-3. For example, the Blake-Bahama Basin off the coast of Florida is about 4000 m lower than the continental shelf. The sea surface of the basin, as measured by the Geos-3 altimeter, is about 8 m lower than that of the continental shelf. Further, a height change of over 20 m has been measured over the Puerto Rican Trench relative to the height of the mean sea level at Puerto Rico.Preliminary results of on-going studies indicate that geostrophic height variations, for example, due to ocean currents (the Gulf Stream has an expected variation of around 1.5 m over 100 km) will be detectable using spaceborne altimeters.     

湖北一次连续风暴中两次强对流卫星雷达特征及与闪电关系

2018年5月17-18日,湖北省一次连续强风暴过程中先后出现了不同类型的强对流天气.利用FY-4A卫星、雷达和地基闪电观测等资料,对相似环境背景下17日夜间鄂西北强对流(第1阶段,下同)和18日上午鄂东强对流(第2阶段,下同)的环境背景和天气系统特征等差异进行分析,提炼卫星雷达和闪电资料对分类强对流的预报依据.(1)...