基于雷达—雨量计降水融合方法提高极端降水监测能力

高时空分辨率、高精度的降水产品对于极端降水的监测以及防灾减灾具有重要意义。地面雨量计提供点尺度降水精确观测,但无法精细化捕捉对流性强降水的空间分布。雷达观测可以精细地刻画降水的空间分布特征,但雷达定量估计降水（QPE,quantitative precipitation estimation）产品估测精度易受雷达观测偏差和Z–R（雷达反射率—降水率）关系等因素影响。因此,本文开展高时空分辨率的雷达—雨量计降水融合算法研究,集成雨量计观测和雷达定量估计降水产品各自的优点。该算法主要步骤包括:雨量站观测数据格点化、局地雨量计订正雷达QPE和雷达—雨量计降水融合三个部分。首先利用克里金插值方法,对雨量站观测的降水进行插值,得到格点降水信息;再通过局地雨量计订正方法系统性地订正雷达QPE产品,以提高雷达QPE产品精度;最后,结合降水类型,通过雷达—雨量计降水融合算法,产生高时空分辨率、高精度的雷达—雨量计降水融合产品。通过郑州“21·7”暴雨、台风“烟花”和2021年8月随州暴雨三个典型的极端降水个例,对雷达—雨量计降水融合算法产生的雷达—雨量计降水融合产品进行了系统地评估和分析。结果表明,在不同的极端降水个例和不同的降水时段,雷达—雨量计降水融合产品精度上优于雷达QPE产品,且在降水的空间分布上较雨量站观测格点插值产品更能精细地刻画降水的结构特征。表明算法得到的雷达—雨量计降水融合产品的准确性较高,对极端降水有较好地捕捉和监测能力。     

唐古拉山区Geonor T—200B雨雪量计日降水观测误差修正

降水观测资料的准确性对气候、气象及水文研究至关重要,因此2005-2011年在青藏高原唐古拉山中段开展了中国标准雨量计(CSPG)和Geonor T-200B自动雨雪量计(下称T-200B)的降水对比观测试验,以CSPG人工观测的日降水修正值作为真实的日降水量,通过数学统计分析,提出T200B的固态、液态及混合态日降水修正公式,并对其进行验证。结果表明,T 200B日降水观测值经过修正后,与CSPG日降水修正值基本相符,试验时段三种降水类型的降水总量的T-200B修正值与CSPG修正之间的平均相对误差为2.3%,平均绝对误差为13.7 mm,该修正方案提高了T 200B降水观测效率,修正精度能够满足实际应用需求。     

几种雨量观测方式比对试验分析

为进一步了解不同雨量观测方式对降水测量的影响,在中国气象局大气探测试验基地进行了几种雨量观测方式的比对试验。本文利用该试验的观测资料,分析了不同雨量计及其不同安装方式对降水测量的影响,并分别给出了各雨量计的测量值。结果表明:降水测量与雨量计的安装方式极其相关,坑式安装测量的雨量值最大,其余依次为双栅、防风圈和平地安装(呈水口高出地面70cm);当前业务观测方式测得的降雨量偏小;降雪测量受风场的影响比液态降水测量更显著。     

降水测量对比试验及其主要结果

为了实现国内固态降水测量的自动化,同时了解我国降水测量与国际标准仪器DIFR间降水测量的差异,2006年中国气象局在大西沟、长春、通河气象站进行了为期近1年的降水测量对比试验。分别针对固态和液态降水分析了我国台站长期使用的普通雨量器的捕捉率大小及其与风速的简要关系、不同安装方式的雨量器间的防风效果。根据降水捕捉率及观测过程中的实际状况,对参加对比试验的7种自动化雨量计进行了性能分析,为业务上完全实现降水自动化观测而提供依据及建议。     

花林流域面雨量监测分析

以花林流域发生的2次洪水过程为例,对雨量计观测记录插值得到的降水分析场(Ps)和雷达联合雨量计估计的降水分析场(Pr)进行了对比,分析了不同来源降水场对流域面雨量计算和流域水文响应的影响.结果表明:雨量计稀疏或分布不均匀,可能会漏测强降水中心,导致不同降水场计算的面雨量存在较大偏差;不同来源降水分析场的差值场(Pr-P...     

精细化评估GPM/IMERG产品对台风“妮坦”降水的观测精度

采用地面加密雨量计观测资料，以1 h、3 h、6 h、12 h和24 h等多个时间尺度分别评估了全球降水观测GPM （Global Precipitation Measurement）计划降水产品IMERG （Integrated Multi-satellite Retrievals for GPM）对台风"妮妲"降水中小雨、中雨、大雨和暴雨等不同量级降水的估计能力，主要结论如下：（1）降水累积时长会影响IMERG降水产品的估计精度。随着降水累计时长的增加，IMERG与地面雨量计观测结果的一致性加大，相对偏差和偏差的随机性均减小；（2）降水累计时长1 h时，IMERG对不同量级降水的观测精度均存在较大偏差；（3） IMERG降水产品会高估小雨时地面雨量计的降水量，且低估小雨事件发生的概率，对于小雨等级降水的观测能力还有待提高；（4） IMERG能较好地观测到暴雨降水的空间分布区域，但对暴雨的估计量级会明显偏低。     

Parsivel激光雨滴谱仪观测较强降水的可行性分析和建议

为了研究OTT-Parsivel激光雨滴谱仪(简称Parsivel)在较强降水观测中应用的可行性,用南京地区2012年6—7月份4个典型的降水个例,对Parsivel和SL3-1翻斗式雨量计(简称雨量计)的累积降水量、降水强度观测资料进行对比分析,并与人工雨量筒观测作以比较。结果表明:Parsivel测值是可信的,在累积降水量观测上,与雨量计具有很好的相关性,但测值始终偏高,该现象主要是粒子相互遮挡造成的。雨量计的反应时间,明显滞后于Parsivel。雨量计测值接近人工测值;而Parsivel与人工测值的偏差明显大于雨量计。结合实验分析与业务应用,提出3点使用建议:(1)仪器应架设在无遮蔽物的开阔地带。(2)采样周期应随着降水强度(地理位置)的不同而改变。(3)对降水微物理参量特征以及粒子谱分析时,可剔除直径过大、速度很低的粒子。     

基于激光雨滴谱仪的一次降水云滴谱特征分析

利用2012年4月30日湖北省发生的一次降水过程中收集到的地面雨滴谱资料,对不同站点对流性降水和层云性降水雨滴谱特征进行分析,并将激光雨滴谱所测降水与自动站雨量计降水进行对比分析。研究表明:不同类型降水粒子平均体积直径、优势直径、中数体积直径差异显著;对流性降水粒子谱为单峰型分布,层状云降水粒子谱为双峰型分布特征;激光雨滴谱仪和自动站雨量计观测到的小时降水量变化趋势基本一致,定量分析发现,激光雨滴谱仪测值相对与雨量计测值存在系统性偏低的情况,且雨强越大,测量偏差越大。      

北京市全天候称重雨量计组网运行效能

固态降水自动化观测对于预报服务,提高冬季降水观测资料的时空分辨率、减轻观测员工作强度等具有重要意义。为满足首都北京应急服务的迫切需求,北京市气象局2009年起开始建设全天候称重雨量计观测网。通过国家级台站的业务对比评估,较为全面地掌握了全天候称重雨量计的降水观测性能,结果表明其与现有业务观测设备相比仪器运行稳定、观测数据一致性较好。在2012年11月的雨雪相态复杂多变的暴雪天气过程中,全天候称重雨量计观测网为数值预报、气象服务等提供了及时、准确、可靠的观测数据,发挥了良好的经济、社会效益。     

雷达与雨量计联合估测降水的相关性分析

在对比分析质量控制前后雷达估测降水量与自动雨量计降水量之间相关性的基础上,采用雷达-雨量计联合校准方法,对14种不同密度雨量计校准雷达估测降水的效果进行分析。结果表明:在使用雷达资料和雨量计资料前有必要对资料的质量进行分析与控制。联合雨量计校准雷达能明显提高雷达对降水的估测能力;采用不同密度雨量计校准雷达,随着校准雨量计密度的加大,雷达估测降水的精度不断提高并趋于稳定。校准雷达的效果及所需雨量计密度与降水类型有关,当校准效果相同时,积云强降水过程需要的雨量计密度最大,积混对流性降水过程次之,层云稳定性降水过程需要的雨量计密度最小。不同方法的校准效果不同,卡尔曼滤波方法适合于对稳定性降水的校准,或在雨量计密度低的地区对雷达进行校准;变分校准法和最优插值法的校准效果相当,适合对积混对流性降水的校准,或在雨量计密度高的地区对雷达进行校准。     

Diurnal variation of surface wind over central eastern China

Hourly wind observations from 452 meteorological stations are used to document the diurnal cycle of the surface wind over the central eastern China (100°–122°E, 20°–42.5°N). Both the surface wind speed and the wind direction show large diurnal variation with pronounced topographic effects. At most stations, the surface wind speed reaches the maximum in the afternoon and the minimum in early-morning. This diurnal phase shows small seasonal variation, whereas the diurnal amplitude varies significantly in different seasons. The diurnal amplitude of the surface wind speed reaches maximum in spring over the northern and southwestern China and in summer over the southern China. The diurnal cycle of the wind direction is more complicated. Over the coastal (mountain) regions, the diurnal wind direction is greatly influenced by the land–sea (mountain–valley) breezes with large (small) seasonal variation. Over the northern plain region, the wind direction exhibits small diurnal variation but with remarkable seasonal rotation. The surface wind over the stations located on the top of mountains shows distinct diurnal variation, which represents the diurnal cycle of the tropospheric low-level wind. The wind speed over these stations is highest in pre-dawn and lowest in the afternoon. The wind anomaly rotates clockwise from late night to late afternoon, and shows significant seasonal variation as influenced by the annual cycle of the monsoon system. The contribution of the diurnal surface wind to the diurnal feature of precipitation is briefly discussed.     

不同台风降水强度下风廓线雷达适用性

以2019年8月在浙江舟山对1909号超强台风“利奇马”的移动观测试验为基础,利用同一地点释放的9次GPS探空气球,对比了风廓线雷达和多普勒激光测风雷达与GPS探空的吻合程度,并利用车载雨滴谱仪对风廓线雷达在不同台风降水强度下的适用性进行了研究。结果表明,在100~300 m高度范围内激光测风雷达观测风速比风廓线雷达更准确。由水平风速对比结果可知,风廓线雷达在3~4 km高度范围内偏差最小(3.59 m/s),相关性最高(0.86),而在1 km高度下偏差最大(6.39 m/s),相关性最低(0.54);在中雨及大雨条件下适用性最差,最大风速偏差约为18 m/s。由水平风向对比结果可知,风廓线雷达与GPS探空总体上吻合较好,相关系数均大于0.85,均方根偏差均小于11 °。另外,降水强度对风廓线雷达的风向观测影响较小,风向偏差随降水强度的变化总体趋于平稳,基本分布在-20 °~20 °之间。      

称重与人工观测降水量的差异

为了更好地使用降水观测数据,对引起称重观测和人工观测的差异原因进行分析,选取北京市15个国家级地面观测站2012年11月—2014年1月称重式降水传感器与人工观测降水量业务资料,探讨称重观测与人工观测累积降水量的差异,并细化为对固态降水和液态降水两种降水类型进行相关性研究。结果表明:称重观测与人工观测日降水量相关系数为0.9990, 88.0%的对比次数中, 两者日降水量差值满足业务要求;在出现固态降水时,称重观测较人工观测降水量偏大,在出现液态降水时,称重观测较人工观测降水量偏小;两者在日降水量等级判断差异较小,小量降水时称重观测的能力较优;防风圈可显著提高称重观测固态降水的捕捉率,而称重观测内筒蒸发对夏季降水测量有一定影响。     

Modeling the impact of urbanization on the local and regional climate in Yangtze River Delta, China

The Yangtze River Delta Economic Belt is one of the most active and developed areas in China and has experienced quick urbanization with fast economic development. The weather research and forecasting model (WRF), with a single-layer urban canopy parameterization scheme, is used to simulate the influence of urbanization on climate at local and regional scales in this area. The months January and July, over a 5-year period (2003–2007), were selected to represent the winter and summer climate. Two simulation scenarios were designed to investigate the impacts of urbanization: (1) no urban areas and (2) urban land cover determined by MODIS satellite observations in 2005. Simulated near-surface temperature, wind speed and specific humidity agree well with the corresponding measurements. By comparing the simulations of the two scenarios, differences in near-surface temperature, wind speed and precipitation were quantified. The conversion of rural land (mostly irrigation cropland) to urban land cover results in significant changes to near-surface temperature, humidity, wind speed and precipitation. The mean near-surface temperature in urbanized areas increases on average by 0.45?±?0.43°C in winter and 1.9?±?0.55°C in summer; the diurnal temperature range in urbanized areas decreases on average by 0.13?±?0.73°C in winter and 0.55?±?0.84°C in summer. Precipitation increases about 15% over urban or leeward areas in summer and changes slightly in winter. The urbanization impact in summer is stronger and covers a larger area than that in winter due to the regional east-Asian monsoon climate characterized by warm, wet summers and cool, dry winters.     

2017年梅雨期浙江中部连续暴雨过程的环流特征

利用常规气象观测资料、NCEP 1°×1°的FNL再分析资料和FY-2E卫星云图资料对2017年梅汛期前后浙江中部大尺度环流背景进行分析,同时对梅汛期三次强降水过程的梅雨锋结构、对流层低层风场对中尺度对流系统发展的影响以及中尺度云团特征等进行了诊断分析。结果表明：1） 进入梅汛期,贝加尔湖长波脊发展及长久维持,带状分布的西太平洋副热带高压较常年偏强,有利于冷暖空气交汇于浙江一带,形成范围大、持续时间长的强降水;2） 在垂直方向上,高空西风急流的入口区右侧与低空急流核左前方相叠加,高低空急流耦合作用明显,为中尺度对流系统维持提供了必备的不稳定机制;3） 三次强降水过程均具有正涡度带随时间东移的现象,揭示了梅雨锋区低值系统沿切变线东移的特点。其中,第三次暴雨过程正涡度东移特点最明显,对流层低层的有利动力条件导致中尺度对流系统的发展及强降水的出现;第二次过程的副热带西风急流中心风速明显较第一次和第三次小,但西风急流中心位置南移至30°—35°N,正好位于梅雨锋区上空,补偿了因急流风速减小对高层辐散的影响。     

Creation of a homogenous climate record for Widdybank Fell in the Upper Teesdale National Nature Reserve, northern England: 1968-2006

A homogenous climate record (1968-2006) is created for Widdybank Fell (515 m) in the Upper Teesdale National Nature Reserve in northern England, one of the longest high-elevation records in the U.K. Separate time series from Widdybank Fell (1968-1995) and nearby Hunt Hall (1996-2006) are combined using a single mobile automatic weather station (AWS) to calibrate between locations based on 5 years of measurements (2000-2005). After instrumental differences are eradicated, transfer functions are developed based on monthly temperature differences, median monthly ratios of wind speed and mean monthly precipitation totals. The resultant monthly time series show limited trends, although minimum temperatures have increased by 0.38°C/decade. There are no secular trends in mean wind speed or monthly precipitation anomalies, in agreement with other studies which suggest northern England is in a transition area between predicted wetting in northern Europe and drying further south.     

Wind onset and withdrawal of Asian summer monsoon and their simulated performance in AMIP models

This study defines the concepts of wind onset and wind withdrawal to describe the abrupt seasonal variations of wind direction and circulation of the Asian monsoon. The patterns of wind onset and withdrawal show that the earliest wind onset in the tropical monsoon regions is found over equator around 70°–100°E and the southernmost South China Sea (SCS) and western Kalimantan, and the wind withdrawal shows a southward progression in tropics compared to the wind onset. A notable temporal boundary is found around 25°N in the subtropical western North Pacific (WNP), which may be related to the northward advance and southward retreat of the western Pacific subtropical high. The angle amplitudes of wind vectors in wind onset and withdrawal have distinct regional differences in Asian monsoon regions. Since the process of monsoon onset (withdrawal) may include several onsets of different variables without simultaneity, the relationships of the wind onset and withdrawal with the abrupt change of other variables (e.g. reversal of zonal wind, reversal of meridional wind, outgoing longwave radiation (OLR), precipitation) are investigated. The results indicate that the temporal discrepancies in different monsoon regions confirmed the asynchronous onsets. It also implies that the wind onset might be a good omen for monsoon precipitation in most regions since it is slightly earlier than rainy season onset. Seven Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP) models from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) are validated against observations mentioned above. Generally, the simulations of the multi-model ensemble mean are better than any individual model results. And the simulations of wind withdrawal are better than those of wind onset. For wind onset, IAP-FGOALS-1.0g, MIROC3.2 (medres) and MPI-ECHAM5 simulate reasonably well. For wind retreat, most models can capture the behaviors in tropics. However, there are still some discrepancies in a few models to simulate the dates of sudden change of monsoon wind direction. Moreover, most of models cannot reproduce the onset and withdrawal of both rainfall and OLR. The relationship between these discrepancies and the shortcomings of precipitation simulation is crucial for further investigating in the future.     

Variations of winter precipitation over southeastern China in association with the North Atlantic Oscillation

The synoptic-scale winter precipitation variations over southeastern China (22°–32°N, 105°–125°E) and their association with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) during 1951–2007 are investigated in this paper. The variability of wintertime precipitation is characterized by meridional displacement of its maximum center. Two precipitation regimes, with maximum centers located over the Yangtze and Pearl River basins, are identified via cluster analysis. Time-lagged analyses suggest that the two precipitation regimes are connected with the decaying phases of positive NAO (NAO+) events of different amplitudes. A strong (medium) NAO+ event is defined as one when the maximum amplitude of the NAO index exceeds 1.0 (in the range of 0.7–1.0) for at least 4 consecutive days and drops to less than 0.3 within 7 days following the peak index. After the peak of a strong NAO+, southerly winds expand northward to the Yangtze River (about 30°N), a northeast–southwest-tilted trough migrates to east of Lake Baikal, and cold air intrudes into central eastern China; thus, precipitation is strengthened over the Yangtze River basin where warm and cold air masses converge. In comparison, during the decaying phase of medium NAO+ events, the southerly winds are relatively weak, and precipitation tends to be enhanced at lower latitudes (around 25°N). Further analysis indicates that downstream Rossby-wave propagation may account for the latitudinal expansion of the southerly wind anomalies over the eastern coastal area of China during the decaying phase of NAO+ events of different strengths.     

2018年登陆上海两个台风暴雨结构特征综合对比分析

利用常规天气资料、雷达资料及NCEP（1°×1°）再分析资料，对1812号台风“云雀”和1818号台风“温比亚”在上海和浙江产生的暴雨过程进行对比分析，结果表明：①“云雀”受副高南侧偏东气流引导，降水集中在台风南侧，“温比亚”受大陆高压南侧偏东气流引导，降水在台风两侧分布均匀，暴雨范围比“云雀”广，但暴雨中心强度比“云雀”弱。②“云雀”后期南侧杭州湾一带有弱冷空气侵入，大气对流不稳性增强，降水再次增强，“温比亚”后期大气为弱对流不稳定状态，降水逐渐减弱。③“温比亚”两侧水汽分布均匀，水汽通量大值区范围和强度比“云雀”大，但垂直方向上“云雀”辐合高度到达了对流层中上层。④ “云雀”暴雨中心正好位于南亚高压主体南侧偏东气流中，更有利于高层辐散加强，产生强降水。     

定量研究雅安地形坡向坡度对降水分布的影响

利用四川省雅安市30 m分辨率基础高程数据,提取栅格的坡向和坡度参数,将雅安307个区域自动站在2017年汛期(6—9月)共50次的降水天气个例,分为16次大尺度降水和34次中小尺度降水,使用对应时次的欧洲中心细网格0.25°×0.25°再分析风场资料,根据不同的站点地形高度将风场合成平均风场,和各站点地形的坡向和坡度计算出其动力抬升作用,同时使用当天日照和天文太阳辐射值来计算地形的热力抬升作用,与对应降水过程的降水分布进行多元线性回归,根据回归的标准系数的大小确定各自变量对降水分布的影响,得出以下结论:(1)中小尺度降水中,地形的热力抬升作用对降水分布的影响作用最大,其次是海拔高度,地形的动力抬升作用在三者中对降水分布的影响最小;(2)在大尺度降水中刚好相反,地形的动力抬升对降水的分布影响作用最大,海拔次之,热力抬升作用在三者中影响作用最小;(3)日降水量最大值的站点海拔高度基本位于1 000 m左右,与抬升凝结高度对应较好;(4)从长期的统计来看,地形的动力作用和地表的植被情况对降水分布的影响最大。在实际预报工作用,根据不同的降水类型,关注不同的动力和热力作用对于判断降水分布大值区的位置有较好的参考作用。