The role of topography in controlling throughflow generation: A discussion

The distributions of specific catchment area and specific dispersal area values over the hillside studied by Anderson and Burt (1978) relate much more closely to the observed distributions of soil water matric potential than do the occurrences of contour concavity on which the authors rely. Highest potential always occurred in the zone of large specific catchment area except immediately after rainfall, when it occurred in the zone of small dispersal area. Isolines of low potential persistently conformed to those of specific dispersal area.     

The relationship between throughflow generation and the solute concentration of soil and stream water

Variation in solute concentrations of soil and stream water during throughflow events was studied at Bicknoller Combe, Somerset, England. The main hydrological process acting in the catchment involves a delayed throughflow discharge pulse a day or two after the rainfall event. During the period of storm runoff, coincident with the rainfall, the solutes in the stream are diluted, but their concentration in the throughflow remains unchanged. During the delayed throughflow pulse, concentrations of both soil and stream water increase. This is due to additional leaching from the soil in hollows where saturated moisture conditions prevail. The results suggest that two distinct erosional environments may exist: on the spurs, leaching seems to be related solely to infiltration processes, whilst in the hollows, saturated throughflow also contributes to the solute removal. This contrast in erosional processes may perhaps account for the difference in slope form and development between the hollow and spur zones.     

Passive L-band microwave soil moisture retrieval error arising from topography in otherwise uniform scenes

Soil moisture is an important component of the water cycle and will be measured for the first time on a global scale by a dedicated passive L-band microwave radiometer that is planned for launch in 2008. Here, the contribution of topography to the error budget is examined for a vegetated scene with uniform microwave emission. Dual-polarization brightness temperature curves were generated over a range of look angles for 1-D scenes with simple geometrical features, and the soil moisture was retrieved assuming a flat surface. The errors were small for the scenarios considered. Theoretical errors were tested for realistic topography with a DEM transect of a mountainous region, and were found to be comparable. Knowledge of the mean slope from high-resolution DEM data can be used to improve the accuracy of the retrieval.     

Dynamic mechanisms controlling the topography of Longmenshan area

The Longmenshan fault, which defines the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau, is one of the steepest margins of the plateau with a sharp elevation drop of about 4 km over a distance less than 100 km across the Longmenshan fault. The mechanism which is responsible for controlling and maintaining the elevation difference is highly debated. Using multiple observations including seismic velocity model, Moho depth, effective elastic thickness of the lithosphere, we conducted a quantitative study for elucidating the contributions from crust and lithospheric mantle by an integrated analysis of lithospheric isostasy and flexure. It is shown that the topography of the Longmenshan fault is supported by both lithospheric isostasy and flexure statically, and lower crustal channel flow and mantle convection dynamically. Different mechanisms have different weights for contribution to the topography of the Songpan-Ganzi block and the Sichuan Basin. The static and dynamic support contribute roughly the same to the topographic difference of ~4 km between the two sides of the Longmenshan fault. The static topographic difference of ~2 km is mainly resulted from the lithospheric isostasy, while the dynamic one of ~2 km is contributed by the uprising of the accumulated material in the lower crust beneath the Songpan-Ganzi block and the downward drag force caused by the upper mantle convection under the Sichuan Basin. It is thus suggested that the lower crustal flow and upper mantle convection are dynamic forces which should be taken into account in the studies on the dynamics in the Longmenshan and surrounding regions.     

The contribution of throughflow to storm runoff: An evaluation of a chemical mixing model

The contribution of throughflow to storm runoff is examined using a chemical mixing model. The results predict that throughflow is an important component of storm runoff particularly during the period of stream recession. Supporting hydrological data suggests that a major throughflow input occurs coincident with the stream discharge peak. The two sets of results therefore conflict in the predicted timing of the throughflow response.     

The use of gypsum spheres for identifying water flow routes in soils

Gypsum (plaster of paris) has been cast into spheres and placed in soils; weight loss has been used to identify relative water flow routes. Theoretical considerations and laboratory experimentation show that solutional weight loss of the material used increases with increasing water flow, but is independent of pH above pH 4. Results for gypsum sphere weight loss are presented for soils where moisture conditions have been measured independently using tensiometers. The data suggest that the weight loss method provides a viable time-integrated demonstration of relative water flow routes.     

Multivariate analysis of soil moisture history for a hillslope

In this study, the spatial distribution of measured soil moisture was analyzed on the platform of multivariate modeling. Soil moisture time series for two seasons were selected and used for analysis to reveal similarities and differences in soil moisture responses for a few rainfall events. The development of a soil moisture transport process that considers the representative element volume and uncertainty of soil media provides the hydrological basis for time series modeling. The systematic procedure of Box–Jenkins with noise modeling was used to delineate the final models for all monitoring points. The physical basis of mass balance and the continuity in inflow contribution, as well as statistical criteria, were used in the model selection procedure. Heuristic approaches provide the spatial distribution of selected models along the transect of a hillside. Comparative analysis for two different depths and seasons provide an understanding of the variation in soil moisture transfer processes at the hillslope scale. Differences in soil moisture models for both depths and seasons are associated with eco-hydrological processes. The relationships between distributed topographic features and modeling results were explored to configure dominant hydrological processes for each season.     

Quantitative analysis of land surface topography

Land surface topography significantly affects the processes of runoff and erosion. A system which determines slope, aspect, and curvature in both the down-slope and across-slope directions is developed for an altitude matrix. Also, the upslope drainage area and maximum drainage distance are determined for every point within the altitude matrix. A FORTRAN 66 program performs the analysis.     

The use of ‘rock hard’-sodium sulphate tablets for quickly determining preferential water flow routes in soils

Subsurface water flow routes have been inferred from gypsum sphere weight loss with minimal disturbance to soil structure or flow nets (Crabtree and Trudgill, 1984). This technique is limited by the relatively slow, fixed dissolution of gypsum. A solution is to use tablets consisting of Durham's ‘Rock Hard Water Putty’ and sodium sulphate. Laboratory tests indicate that tablet dissolution is controlled by the ratio of Rock Hard to sodium sulphate and is proportional to net throughflow yet independent of throughflow pH (between 3·0 and 9·0) and throughflow rate (at rates < 0·04 1 hr^?1). The tablets are also mechanically stable, economical, and environmentally safe. Field study results using the Rock Hard-sodium sulphate tablets are consistent with both the laboratory findings and the results of previous investigators.     

模型扩展和地形平化起伏地形处理方案在地震走时层析成像中的对比研究

中国大陆中西部普遍具有强烈的地形起伏,起伏地形会对地震资料的处理分析产生严重干扰.精细处理起伏地形成为高精度地震成像的必然要求.传统方法通过填充低速介质将不规则模型扩展为规则模型来处理起伏地形.近年来,借助坐标变换将物理空间不规则模型转换为计算空间规则模型的地形平化方法,为解决起伏地形问题提供了新思路.本文基于经典的模型扩展和新发展的地形平化方法分别处理起伏地形,从走时正演、射线追踪和反演成像三个方面,全面细致地评判了两种地形处理方法在起伏地形层析成像中的适用性和有效性.结果表明,模型扩展中阶梯状近似和填充介质速度参与计算,会造成起伏地形走时计算精度损失,出现虚假射线路径和错误出射角,导致反演分辨率降低,成像结果模糊甚至失真;地形平化中采用贴体网格参数化,能够保证离散模型完全匹配起伏地形,并且保持起伏地形在物理空间和计算空间中均为自由表面.在此基础上发展的层析成像技术具有高度的保真性,有效地处理了地形起伏效应,为起伏地形区域精细速度成像提供了有力的技术保障.

     

数值模式中地形滤波处理及水平扩散对降雨预报的影响

为克服高分辨率模拟中,对于具有陡峭山峰及深谷的区域,存在不真实降雨场预报问题,本文引入数字滤波器及水平扩散方案分别对地形及计算噪音进行处理.滤波器由不同的一维高阶低通隐式正切滤波器耦合而成,能选择性地过滤由地形坡度所引起的不同尺度的噪音.水平扩散方案是将一个通量受地形限制的线性四阶单调水平扩散项加到预报方程,去控制由数值扩散、非线性不稳定及不连续物理过程等引起的小尺度噪音.试验结果表明：地形滤波处理及水平扩散方案能消除山区降雨预报量集中在山顶,而同时山谷和背风面又无雨的现象.因而,降雨分布更真实.     

基于非结构网格的电阻率三维带地形反演

地表起伏地形在野外矿产资源勘察中不可避免, 其对直流电阻率法勘探影响巨大.近年来, 电阻率三维正演取得诸多进展, 特别是应用非结构网格我们能够进行任意复杂地形和几何模型的电阻率三维数值模拟, 但面向实际应用的起伏地形下电阻率三维反演依然困难.本文基于非结构化四面体网格, 并考虑到应用GPS/GNSS时, 区域地球物理调查中可非规则布设测网的实际特点, 实现了任意地形(平坦或起伏)条件下、任意布设的偶极-偶极视电阻率数据的不完全Gauss-Newton三维反演.合成数据的反演结果表明了方法的有效性, 可应用于复杂野外环境下的三维电法勘探.     

On the interrelations between topography,soil depth,soil moisture,transpiration rates and species distribution at the hillslope scale

Relations between the spatial patterns of soil moisture, soil depth, and transpiration and their influence on the hillslope water balance are not well understood. When determining a water balance for a hillslope, small scale variations in soil depth are often ignored. In this study we found that these variations in soil depth can lead to distinct patterns in transpiration rates across a hillslope. We measured soil moisture content at 0.05 and 0.10 m depth intervals between the soil surface and the soil–bedrock boundary on 64 locations across the trenched hillslope in the Panola Mountain Research Watershed, Georgia, USA. We related these soil moisture data to transpiration rates measured in 14 trees across the hillslope using 28 constant heat sapflow sensors. Results showed a lack of spatial structure in soil moisture across the hillslope and with depth when the hillslope was in either the wet or the dry state. However, during the short transition period between the wet and dry state, soil moisture did become spatially organized with depth and across the hillslope. Variations in soil depth and thus total soil water stored in the soil profile at the end of the wet season caused differences in soil moisture content and transpiration rates between upslope and midslope sections at the end of the summer. In the upslope section, which has shallower soils, transpiration became limited by soil moisture while in the midslope section with deeper soils, transpiration was not limited by soil moisture. These spatial differences in soil depth, total water available at the end of the wet season and soil moisture content during the summer appear responsible for the observed spatial differences in basal area and species distribution between the upslope and midslope sections of the hillslope.     

The role of sidewall processes in gully development; some N.S.W. examples

Little attention has been paid to the role of sidewall processes in gully development. Simple estimates of linear incision/sidewall erosion ratios at two localities in New South Wales, Australia suggest that sidewall erosion is responsible for more than half the gully volume. Studies at three localities where overland flow and throughflow are limited to only one sidewall indicate that these processes are responsible for 10-30 per cent of gully volume. These observations have important implications for gully management.     

起伏地表采集数据的三维直接叠前时间偏移方法

提出一种可对起伏地表采集的三维地震资料直接进行偏移成像的叠前时间偏移方法和流程.它用两个等效速度描述近地表和上覆层对地震波传播的影响,可对炮、检点不在同一水平面的三维地震资料直接进行叠前时间偏移处理.该方法不对近地表地震波传播做垂直出、入射假定,因此可适应高速层出露等不存在明显低、降速带情况.描述近地表和上覆层的两个等效速度参数可依据偏移道集的同相轴是否平直来确定,避免了确定近地表速度的困难;而对已知近地表速度的情况,则可进一步修正近地表速度,获得更好的成像效果.用三维起伏地表的理论数据和中国东部某工区实际数据验证了所发展方法和处理流程的有效性和实用性.     

Numerical evaluation of slope topography effects on seismic ground motion

This paper presents results of numerical analyses for the seismic response of step-like ground slopes in uniform visco-elastic soil, under vertically propagating SV seismic waves. The aim of the analyses is to explore the effects of slope geometry, predominant excitation frequency and duration, as well as of the dynamic soil properties on seismic ground motion in a parametric manner, and provide qualitative as well as quantitative insight to the phenomenon. Among the main conclusions of this study is that this kind of topography may lead to intense amplification or de-amplification variability at neighboring (within a few tens of meters) points behind the crest of the slope, especially for high frequency excitations. Nevertheless, a general trend of amplification near the crest and de-amplification near the toe of the slope seems to hold for the horizontal motion. As a result of these two findings, it becomes evident that reliable field evidence of slope topography aggravation is extremely difficult to establish. Furthermore, this study highlights the generation of a parasitic vertical component of motion in the vicinity of the slope, due to wave reflections at the slope surface, that under certain preconditions may become as large as the horizontal. Criteria are established for deciding on the importance of topography effects, while approximate relations are provided for the preliminary evaluation of the topographic aggravation of seismic ground motion and the width of the affected zone behind the crest.     

新近月球重力场模型与地形模型的局部导纳和相关性分析

本文利用三个高阶重力场模型LP150Q、GLGM-3和SGM150j以及嫦娥地形模型CLTM-s01,在频率域内使用固定窗口的方法,研究了不同重力场模型的重力/地形局部导纳谱与局部相关谱的全球分布,以及典型质量瘤盆地重力/地形局部导纳谱与局部相关谱分布的特征.结果表明:加入远月面重力场信息有助于增强重力场模型在中高频段的信号强度;三个重力场模型LP150Q、GLGM-3和SGM150j均适合于作近月面重力/地形局部导纳与局部相关性的分析和近月面地球物理参数的估计;重力场模型LP150Q和GLGM-3较适合作远月面大范围的研究,不适合于作远月面重力/地形局部导纳谱与局部相关谱的分析以及作远月面局部区域地球物理参数的估计,SGM150j较适合于作远月面局部区域地球物理参数的估计;近月面大型质量瘤盆地异常质量的尺度比远月面质量瘤盆地异常质量的大,而深度也比远月面的深.     

基于有限差分正演的带地形三维大地电磁反演方法

本研究实现了一套基于有限差分（FD）方法的大地电磁测深数据带地形三维反演算法及代码.其中,在大地电磁场正演数值模拟方面,开发了起伏地形条件下基于交错网格剖分、有限差分方法的大地电磁测深三维正演代码;在满足平面波场假设的前提下,使用长方体网格剖分模拟三维起伏地形,实现了带地形三维正演计算;并设计理论模型进行试算,经试算结果与前人的有限元法计算结果对比,验证了所研发的带地形三维正演计算的正确性与可靠性.在反演方面,本研究基于非线性共轭梯度方法编写了大地电磁测深带地形三维反演代码,试验了不同的共轭梯度搜索因子β,避免了目标函数对海森矩阵（参数二次导数矩阵）的显式计算和存储,初步实现了大地电磁资料的带地形三维反演.最后,对一系列理论模型进行正演计算,利用其生成的合成数据模拟实测数据进行反演,并与现有的不带地形大地电磁测深三维反演结果比较,检验了所研发的带地形三维反演计算的可靠性与稳定性.     

Distribution of caesium-137 in soils across a hillslope hollow

The distribution of soil ¹³⁷Cs in relation to selected soil and landform properties was studied across a 16 ha hillslope hollow in the Hunter valley, New South Wales, Australia. The hillslope was used as grazing for cattle. Caesium-137 was not significantly related to the amount of sand, silt, or clay, the bulk density, the organic matter content, the slope angle or the relative distance downslope. However, ¹³⁷Cs was significantly related to the thickness of the soil A horizon. Spatial variations in ¹³⁷Cs were compared with topographic units and a six-element hillslope model, but there was little correspondence. It was thought that the effects of microtopography could have masked potential interrelationships between ¹³⁷Cs and broader scale landform parameters.