Lower crustal granulite xenoliths from the Pannonian Basin,Hungary, Part 2: Sr–Nd–Pb–Hf and O isotope evidence for formation of continental lower crust by tectonic emplacement of oceanic crust

Mafic granulite xenoliths from the lower crust of the Pannonian Basin are dominated by LREE-depleted bulk-rock compositions. Many of these have MORB-like ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd but ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr is elevated relative to most MORBs. Their '¹⁸O values cover a wide range from +3.8 to +9.5‰. A group of LREE-enriched mafic granulites have higher ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr (0.704-0.708) and lower ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd (0.5128-0.5124), with higher '¹⁸O values on average (+7.8 to +10.6‰) than the LREE-depleted granulites. The LREE-enriched granulites are, however, isotopically similar to newly discovered metasedimentary granulite xenoliths. A sublinear correlation in )Hf-)Nd isotope space has a shallower slope than the crust-mantle array, with the metasedimentary rocks forming the low )Hf end member; the radiogenic end is restricted to the LREE-depleted granulites and these overlap the field of MORB. Pb isotopes for the LREE-depleted samples are less radiogenic on average than those of the LREE-enriched and metasedimentary xenoliths, and metasedimentary granulites have consistently higher ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb. The wide range in '¹⁸O over a restricted range in Nd and Sr isotope values, in combination with the predominance of LREE-depleted trace-element compositions, is consistent with an origin as a package of hydrothermally altered oceanic crust. The existence of '¹⁸O values lower than average MORB and/or mantle peridotite requires that at least some of these rocks were hydrothermally altered at high temperature, presumably in the oceanic lower crust. The low ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd of the LREE-enriched mafic granulites cannot be explained by simple mixing between a LREE-depleted melt and an enriched component, represented by the recovered metasediments. Instead, we interpret these rocks as the metamorphic equivalent of the shallowest levels of the ocean crust where pillow basalts are intimately intercalated with oceanic sediments. A possible model is accretion of oceanic crustal slices during subduction and convergence, followed by high-grade metamorphism during the Alpine orogeny.     

Mantle upwelling within the Pannonian Basin: evidence from xenolith lithology and mineral chemistry

Five spinel lherzolite xenoliths hosted in Neogene alkali basalts from the marginal parts of the Pannonian Basin (Styrian Basin in Austria and Persani Mts. in the Eastern Transylvanian Basin, Romania) contain orthopyroxene–clinopyroxene–spinel clusters, which are believed to represent former garnet in lherzolitic mantle material. 'Palaeo' equilibrium pressure of this former garnet lherzolite was estimated to be equivalent to depths of 90–120 km using calculated garnet compositions and measured orthopyroxene compositions from the clusters. 'Neo' equilibrium pressures of the xenoliths indicate depths of 55–65 km, suggesting c.  50–60 km uprise of the mantle section represented by these xenoliths. This petrological result confirms the observations from previous geophysical studies that significant mantle uplift has occurred beneath the Pannonian Basin.     

安徽女山下地壳麻粒岩包体中的水：红外光谱分析

运用显微傅立叶变换红外光谱技术,对安徽女山新生代玄武岩中的10个麻粒岩包体的主要组成矿物（单斜辉石、斜方辉石、斜长石）进行了观察。结果显示,这些名义上的无水矿物中都普遍含有以OH一形式赋存的结构水,其含量（H10wt．）分别可以高达～2340ppm（单斜辉石）、～1590ppm（斜方辉石）和～910ppm（斜长石）。不同样品间矿物的结构水含量具有明显的不均一性的分布特点,这很可能是对其原岩性质的一种反映。根据单矿物的水含量和各自的体积分数计算出的全岩水含量为125～963ppm。根据二辉石温度计计算的女山麻粒岩包体的平衡温度为～800～900℃,对应于女山最下部地壳（-25～35km）,因此本文数据为大陆下地壳含水与否提供了初步的最直接的证据,并且其水含量可能具有不均一性的分布特点。     

辽西阜新中生代玄武岩中深源捕虏体的岩石学和矿物化学研究

辽西阜新中生代碱性玄武岩的Ｋ－Ａｒ同位素年龄为８４．７６±１．６７Ｍａ, 其中含有丰富的深源岩石捕虏体, 包括角闪尖晶二辉橄榄岩、尖晶石二辉橄榄岩、含长角闪二辉石岩、二辉麻粒岩和辉石斜长片麻岩等。与新生代玄武岩中的同类捕虏体相比, 橄榄岩类捕虏体中橄榄石的成分相似 （Ｆｏ＝ ８６～９１）, 透辉石具有富Ａｌ、贫Ｃｒ 和Ｃａ 的特点, 尖晶石的成分以ＭｇＡｌ２ Ｏ４ 为主, 有的橄榄岩捕虏体中含少量韭闪石。二辉麻粒岩捕虏体中的斜方辉石为紫苏辉石, 单斜辉石为普通辉石, 斜长石属于更长石。橄榄岩类捕虏体的平衡温度为１０１２．６℃～１２７２．１℃; 压力为１．８２５～２．９３５ＧＰａ, 二辉麻粒岩和片麻岩的平衡温度为８９２℃～１１５７℃。该类深源岩石捕虏体的发现对中国东部中生代上地幔和下地壳的研究均具有重要意义。     

Metamorphism, isotopic ages and composition of lower crustal granulite xenoliths from the Cretaceous Salta Rift, Argentina

Crustal xenoliths from basanitic dikes and necks that intruded into continental sediments of the Cretaceous Salta Rift at Quebrada de Las Conchas, Provincia Salta, Argentina were investigated to get information about the age and the chemical composition of the lower crust. Most of the xenoliths have a granitoid composition with quartz-plagioclase-garnet-rutile ± K-feldspar as major minerals. The exceedingly rare mafic xenoliths consist of plagioclase-clinopyroxene-garnet ± hornblende. All xenoliths show a well equilibrated granoblastic fabric and the minerals are compositionally unzoned. Thermobarometric calculations indicate equilibration of the mafic xenoliths in the granulite facies at temperatures of ca. 900 °C and pressures of ca. 10 kbar. The Sm-Nd mineral isochron ages are 95.1 ± 10.4 Ma, 91.5 ± 13.0 Ma, 89.0 ± 4.2 Ma (granitoid xenoliths), and 110.7 ± 23.6 Ma (mafic xenolith). These ages are in agreement with the age of basanitic volcanism (ca. 130–100 and 80–75 Ma) and are interpreted as minimum ages of metamorphism. Lower crustal temperature at the time given by the isochrons was above the closure temperature of the Sm-Nd system (>600–700 °C). The Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr isotopic signatures (¹⁴⁷Sm/¹⁴⁴Nd = 0.1225–0.1608; ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd_{t 0} = 0.512000–0.512324; ⁸⁷Rb/⁸⁶Sr = 0.099–0.172; ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr_{t 0} = 0.708188–0.7143161) and common lead isotopic signatures (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 18.43–18.48; ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 15.62–15.70; ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 38.22 –38.97) of the granitoid xenoliths are indistinguishable from the isotopic composition of the Early Paleozoic metamorphic basement from NW Argentina, apart from the lower ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratio of the basement. The Sm-Nd depleted mantle model ages of ca. 1.8 Ga from granitoid xenoliths and Early Paleozoic basement point to a similar Proterozoic protolith. Time constraints, the well equilibrated granulite fabric, P-T conditions and lack of chemical zoning of minerals point to a high temperature in a crust of nearly normal thickness at ca. 90 Ma and to a prominent thermal anomaly in the lithosphere. The composition of the xenoliths is similar to the composition of the Early Paleozoic basement in the Andes of NW Argentina and northern Chile. A thick mafic lower crust seems unlikely considering low abundance of mafic xenoliths and the predominance of granitoid xenoliths. Received: 21 July 1998 / Accepted: 27 October 1998     

Distribution of relict permafrost features in the Pannonian Basin,Hungary

Wedge structures and involutions suggest that Late Pleistocene frozen ground, either permafrost or deep seasonal frost, extended at least as far south as latitude 47°N in central Europe (the Pannonian Basin). Optically stimulated luminescence dating of the sand infill from a number of wedges indicates that emplacement of the sand infill occurred during the Late Pleistocene (22.2–15.7 ka). This suggests that during this time the mean annual air temperature was depressed by at least ～15°C relative to the present. Either continuous or discontinuous permafrost was probably present in the north and NW of the Pannonian Basin. The subsequent thaw of frozen ground is indicated by the widespread occurrence of deformed sediments. The presence of soil (ground) wedges suggests conditions of deep seasonal frost probably existed during the period when climate ameliorated following the Last Permafrost Maximum (LPM).     

汉诺坝新生代玄武岩中下地壳麻粒岩包体的变形显微构造特征及其地质意义

新生代玄武岩中的下地壳包体,由于从下地壳被快速携带至地表,因此保留了下地壳的直接信息.华北北部汉诺坝新生代玄武岩中除了含有丰富的幔源包体之外,还含有许多下地壳麻粒岩包体.本文的主要目的是通过对该区下地壳麻粒岩包体的变形显微构造和位错亚构造特征的详细研究,探讨下地壳的变形特征和变形机制.光学显微镜下观测表明,下地壳麻粒岩包体的低温(＜800℃)样品中确实发育显微破裂,但变形双晶、变形条带、扭折带也同样发育,动态重结晶作用也开始出现.随着温度、压力的升高,变形双晶、变形条带、变形纹、扭折带和重结晶新晶粒等塑性变形特征占主导地位,而显微破裂则主要表现为由塑性失配引起的显微破裂以及流体包裹体面.而明显不同于Ivrea带地体麻粒岩,在这些包体中未发现与韧性剪切有关的变形显微构造特征.透射电镜观测表明,包体中的斜长石和辉石颗粒普遍发育自由位错、位错列、亚晶界、新晶界、变形双晶、包裹体列和出溶片晶等位错亚构造.上述观测结果表明,下地壳变形作用以塑性变形为主而不是准脆性变形,其变形机制主要为位错的滑移和攀移机制,其中包括机械双晶作用和动态重结晶作用.     

Characteristics of Lower Crustal Granulite Xenoliths from the East Qinling Orogenic Belt and Their Tectonic Significance

The Tongbai granulites are present mainly as xenoliths in granodioritic gneisses. The xenoliths with a zircon age of 470Ma are older than the host rocks of granodioritic gneisses which yield a zircon age of 435Ma. It is suggested that the granulites were transported from the lower crust to the upper level along with granodioritic magma. Geothermometrical and geobarometrical studies based on the coexisting minerals (Opx-Cpx and Opx-Gar) show that the granulites were crystallized at 818 –840 °C and 9.5−9.8 × 10⁸ Pa corresponding to the lower crust. Tectonically, the Shangdan suture zone constitutes the boundary between the North China and Yangtze plates. The zone is char acterized by the occurrence of ophiolites in the western part and by that of granulites in the eastern part. So the western part marks the upper crustal level of the Qinling belt, while the eastern part represents the exposure of a deeper level. The results of isotopic dating and the geochemical characteristics of the xenoliths are consistent with those of metatholeiites of the ophiolites in the western part. Therefore, it is assumed that both ophiolites found in the west and granulites found in the east all represent the remnants of the ancient Qinling ocean plate. The difference is that the ophiolites are pieces of obducted fragments from the ocean floor during the subduction in the Early Palaeozoic. However, in the Tongbai area, when the ocean floor was subducting towards the lower crust, it underwent a granulite fades metamorphism. Subsequently, granodioritic magma formed by partial melting trapped some fragments of granulite upwards. This project was jointly granted by the National Natural Science Foundation of China and Stiftung Volkswagenwerk of Germany     

Symplectite in spinel lherzolite xenoliths from the Little Hungarian Plain, Western Hungary: A key for understanding the complex history of the upper mantle of the Pannonian Basin

Two spinel lherzolite xenoliths from Hungary that contain pyroxene–spinel symplectites have been studied using EPMA, Laser ablation ICP-MS and universal stage. Based on their geochemical and structural characteristics, the xenoliths represent two different domains of the shallow subcontinental lithospheric mantle beneath the Pannonian Basin. The occurrence of symplectites is attributed to the former presence and subsequent breakdown of garnets due to significant pressure decrease related to lithospheric thinning. This implies that both mantle domains were once part of the garnet lherzolitic upper mantle and had a similar history during the major extension that formed the Pannonian Basin.

Garnet breakdown resulted in distinct geochemical characteristics in the adjacent clinopyroxene crystals in both xenoliths. This is manifested by enrichment in HREE, Y, Zr and Hf towards the clinopyroxene porphyroclast rims and also in the neoblasts with respect to porphyroclast core compositions. This geochemical feature, together with the development and preservation of the texturally very sensitive symplectites, enables us to determine the relative timing of mantle processes. Our results indicate that garnets had been metastable in the spinel lherzolite environment and their breakdown to pyroxene and spinel is one of the latest processes that took place within the upper mantle before the xenoliths were brought to the surface.     

Petrology and geochemistry of spinel peridotite xenoliths from the western Pannonian Basin (Hungary): evidence for an association between enrichment and texture in the upper mantle

Twenty spinel peridotite xenoliths from Pliocene alkali basaltic tuffs and lavas of the western Pannonian Basin (Hungary) have been analysed for bulk rock major and trace elements, electron probe mineral compositions, and REE and Sr, Nd isotopes on separated and leached clinopyroxenes. The xenoliths are texturally diverse, including protogranular, porphyroclastic, equigranular and poikilitic textures which can generally be correlated with geochemical features. Protogranular xenoliths are relatively undepleted in Ca, Al, Ti and Na, whereas poikilitic xenoliths are more refractory. LREE-depleted patterns. and MORB-like _Nd and _Sr values are associated with protogranular peridotites. In contrast, xenoliths with complex textures are generally LREE-enriched. Much of the isotopic variation in the suite (_Sr=–20.4 to +10.4, +_Nd=+1.8 to +13.7) can be related to interaction between protogranular mantle and melts resembling the host alkali basalts, but a third (high _Sr) component may be due to Miocene subduction beneath the region.     

The petrology of lower crustal xenoliths from the Executive Committee Range, Marie Byrd Land Volcanic Province, West Antarctica

Alkaline magmas from the late-Cenozoic Marie Byrd Land Volcanic Province, West Antarctica, have entrained lithospheric xenoliths which vary from spinel lherzolites to supracrustal rocks. Lower crustal xenoliths have been collected from the Executive Committee Range (Mounts Hampton in the north and Mount Sidley in the south) in central Marie Byrd Land, and their petrological characteristics together with preliminary geochemical data are discussed here. Granulite xenoliths include metaigneous gabbros and norites with varying proportions of clinopyroxene, spinel and either olivine or orthopyroxene. Pyroxenites occur together with granulites, which on the basis of their similar mineral assemblage, texture and composition are considered to be related to the granulites. The composition of xenoliths from Mounts Hampton and Sidley differ (e.g. Mount Sidley xenoliths have Mg# 32–80, are relatively LREE enriched and have ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr of 0.70286–0.70376 and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd of 0.512864–0.512870, whereas Mount Hampton xenoliths have Mg# 68–78, are LREE depleted and have ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr of 0.70420–0.70458 and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd of 0.512771–0.512819), defining a major lateral lower crustal discontinuity beneath the Executive Committee Range. Relict igneous textures and low abundances of incompatible elements indicate that the xenoliths initially formed as cumulates rather than as trapped melts. The xenolith suite differs in composition to the host rocks (Mount Sidley VOLCANICS = ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr of 0.70300–0.70312 and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd of 0.512814–0.512907) and cannot be co-genetic with them. They are interpreted here to represent the cumulates of mantle melts that evolved by crystal fractionation at lower crustal depths.     

安徽女山麻粒岩包体：矿物学特征、下地壳地温曲线及其成因意义

女山玄武岩中麻粒岩包体的主要矿物组合为 Opx+Cpx+Pl,均呈条带状构造 ,具有细粒粒状变晶结构或不等粒结构。女山麻粒岩包体的斜方辉石及单斜辉石的化学成分都非常相似于华北太古代麻粒岩地体 ,而明显区别于汉诺坝麻粒岩包体。通过对世界上含石榴石麻粒岩的检验 ,表明 Wells(1977) :二辉石温度计与 Mc Carthy & Pati～no Douce(1998)的 Cpx+Pl+Qz压力计的温压计组合是计算麻粒岩平衡温压的可行方法 ,并得到了女山麻粒岩包体平衡温度分布于 80 9～ 899℃之间 ,主要集中于 85 0± 2 0 C,平衡压力为 0 .6 0～ 0 .95 GPa。由麻粒岩包体的平衡温压所建立起的女山地区下地壳地温曲线与 Xuet a1.(1998)建立的上地幔地温曲线上延部分非常吻合。根据地温线推得的“岩石学”Moho面深度为 31km土 ,与“地震”Moho面深度相一致 ,表明女山地区不具有明显的壳幔过渡带。女山地区缺乏强烈的底侵作用以及麻粒岩包体的特征矿物化学成分暗示了女山麻粒岩包体可能来源于华北克拉通结晶基底     

Arsenic,iron and organic matter in sediments and groundwater in the Pannonian Basin,Hungary

In the central part of the Pannonian Basin, factors controlling the distribution of As in sediments and groundwater of the upper 500 m were studied. In core samples, the amounts of As, Fe and Mn extractable with hydroxylamine hydrochloride (NH₂OH · HCl) in 25% acetic acid, the proportion of the <0.063 mm size fraction, and the sediment organic C (C_org) contents were measured. In the groundwaters concentrations of As, humic substances, and selected major chemical components were determined. In most core samples extractable Fe, as FeOOH, and C_org are correlated, but some samples have excess Fe, or organic matter. In cases where either excess Fe or excess organic matter is found, the amount of As is also elevated. The spatial distribution of As in the groundwater and the lack of a consistent correlation of As with a single component indicate that there is no single factor controlling the concentration of dissolved As over the entire study area. The only consistent feature is enrichment of As relative to Fe in the groundwater, compared to the sediments. This suggests that the dissolution of Fe minerals, which primarily adsorb As, is not congruent. In reducing conditions Fe(III) oxyhydroxides together with adsorbed As dissolve, and siderite with little or no As precipitates. When sub-regions are separated and studied individually, it can be shown that hydrogeological features of the sediments, the proportions of Fe minerals and sedimentary organic matter, and the concentration of dissolved humic materials, all influence the accumulation and mobilization of As. The significance of the different mobilizing processes, however, and the mean concentration of As, is different in the recharge, through-flow and discharge areas.     

Sulphur and carbon isotopic composition of power supply coals in the Pannonian Basin, Hungary

The present work is an attempt to establish the stable isotope database for Mesozoic to Tertiary coals from the Pannonian Basin, Hungary. Maceral composition, proximate analysis, sulphur form, sulphur isotopes (organic and pyritic), and carbon isotopes were determined. This database supports the assessment of the environmental risks associated with energy generation, the characterization of the formation and the distribution of sulphur in the coals used.The maceral composition, the sulphur composition, the C, S isotopic signatures, and some of the geological evidences published earlier show that the majority of these coals were deposited in freshwater and brackish water environments, despite the relatively high average sulphur content. However, the Upper Cretaceous, Eocene, and Lower Miocene formations also contain coal seams of marine origin, as indicated by their maceral composition and sulphur and carbon chemistry.The majority of the sulphur in these coals occurs in the organic form. All studied sulphur phases are relatively rich in ³⁴S isotopes (δ³⁴S_organic = + 12.74‰, δ³⁴S_pyrite = + 10.06‰, on average). This indicates that marine bacterial sulphate reduction played a minor role in their formation, in the sense that isotopic fractionation was limited. It seems that the interstitial spaces of the peat closed rapidly during early diagenesis due to a regime of high depositional rate, leading to a relative enrichment of the heavy sulphur isotopes.     

Thermobarometry and P–T–t paths: the granulite to eclogite transition in lower crustal xenoliths from eastern Australia

‘Lower crustal’ suite xenoliths in basaltic and kimberlitic magmas are dominated by mafic granulites and may also include eclogites and garnet pyroxenites. Pressures of up to 25 kbar obtained from such xenoliths are well in excess of an upper value of c. 12 kbar for exposed granulite terranes. Palaeogeotherms constructed from xenoliths for the lower crust beneath the Phanerozoic fold belts of eastern Australia (SEA) and beneath the eastern margin of the Australian craton (EMAC) indicate two distinct thermal regimes. The two geotherms have similar form, with the EMAC curve displaced c. 150°C to lower temperatures. Reaction microstructures show the partial re-equilibration of primary igneous assemblages to granulite and eclogite assemblages and are interpreted to reflect the cooling from magmatic temperatures. Variations in mineral compositions and zoning are used to constrain further the history of several EMAC xenoliths to near-isobaric trajectories. Detailed graphical models are constructed to predict compositional changes for isobaric P–T paths (at 7, 14 & 21 kbar) to transform an SEA-type geotherm to a cratonic geotherm. The models show that for the assemblage grt + cpx ± ky + plag + qtz, the changes associated with falling temperature in X_gr, X_jd (increase) and X_an (decrease) will be greater at higher pressures. These results indicate that discernible zoning is more likely to be preserved in the higher pressure xenoliths. The zoning recorded in clinopyroxene from mafic granulite xenoliths over the pressure range c. 12–22 kbar suggests isobaric cooling of a large crustal thickness (30–35 km). An isobaric cooling path is consistent with magma accretion models for the transition of a crust–mantle boundary from an SEA-type geotherm to a cratonic geotherm. The coexistence of granulite and eclogite over the depth range 35–75 km beneath the EMAC indicates that the granulite to eclogite transition in the lower crust is controlled by P–T conditions, bulk chemistry and kinetic factors. At shallower crustal levels, typified by exposed granulite terranes, isobaric cooling may not result in the transition to eclogite.     

Origin of CO2 and carbonate veins in mantle-derived xenoliths in the Pannonian Basin

The origin and evolution of CO₂ inclusions and calcite veins in peridotite xenoliths of the Pannonian Basin, Hungary, were investigated by means of petrographic investigation and stable isotope analyses. The fluid inclusions recovered in paragenetic olivine and clinopyroxene belong to distinct populations: type A (texturally early) inclusions with regular shapes (often with negative crystal forms) forming intragranular trails; type B (texturally late) inclusions defining randomly oriented trails that reach grain boundaries. Type B inclusions are often associated with silicate melt (type C) inclusions. Stable carbon isotope compositions in inclusion-hosted CO₂ were obtained by vacuum crushing followed by conventional dual inlet as well as continuous flow mass spectrometry in order to eliminate possible lab artifacts. Olivines, clino- and orthopyroxenes of the host peridotite have oxygen isotope compositions from 5.3 to 6.0‰ (relative to V-SMOW), without any relationship with xenolith texture. Some of the xenoliths contained calcite in various forms: veins and infillings in silicate globules in veins, secondary carbonate veins filling cracks and metasomatic veins with diffuse margins. The former two carbonate types have δ¹³C values around –13‰ (relative to V-PDB) and low Sr contents (< 0.5 wt.%), whereas the third type,veins with high-temperature metasomatic features have a δ¹³C value of –5.0‰ and high Sr contents up to 3.4 wt.%. In spite of the mantle-like δ¹³C value and the unusually high Sr content typical for mantle-derived carbonate, trace element compositions have proven a crustal origin. This observation supports the conclusions of earlier studies that the carbonate melt droplets found on peridotite xenoliths in the alkaline basalts represent mobilized sedimentary carbonate. The large δ¹³C range and the ¹²C-enrichment in the carbonates can be attributed to devolatilization of the migrating carbonate or infiltration of surficial fluids containing ¹²C-rich dissolved carbon.Carbon isotope compositions of inclusion-hosted CO₂ range from –17.8 to –4.8‰ (relative to V-PDB) with no relation to the amount of CO₂ released by vacuum crushing. Low-δ¹³C values measured by stepwise heating under vacuum suggest that the carbon component is pristine and not related to surficial contamination, and that primary mantle fluids with δ¹³C values around –5‰ were at least partly preserved in the xenoliths. Tectonic reworking and heating by the basaltic magma resulted in partial CO₂ release and local ¹³C-depletion.