Improvement of the Noah land surface model for warm season processes: evaluation of water and energy flux simulation

The Noah model is a land surface model of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction. It has been widely used in regional coupled weather and climate models (i.e. Weather Research and Forecasting Model, Eta Mesoscale Model) and global coupled weather and climate models (i.e. National Centers for Environmental Prediction Global Forecast System, Climate Forecast System). Therefore, its continued improvement and development are keys to enhancing our weather and climate forecast ability and water and energy flux simulation accuracy. North American Land Data Assimilation System phase 1 (NLDAS‐1) experiments indicated that the Noah model exhibited substantial bias in latent heat flux, total runoff and land skin temperature during the warm season, and such bias can significantly affect coupled weather and climate models. This paper presents a study to improve the Noah model by adding model parameterization processes such as including seasonal factor on leaf area index and root distribution and selecting optimal model parameters. We compared simulated latent heat flux, mean annual runoff and land skin temperature from the Noah control and test versions with measured latent heat flux, land surface skin temperature, mean annual runoff and satellite‐retrieved land surface skin temperature. The results show that the test version significantly reduces biases in latent heat, total runoff and land skin temperature simulation. The test version has been used for the NLDAS phase 2 (NLDAS‐2) to produce 30‐year water flux, energy flux and state variable products to support the US drought monitor of National Integrated Drought Information System. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

王3井水氡、水汞观测资料分析

对王3井水氡、水汞开始观测以来的资料进行了系统清理,针对近几年该井水氡观测资料出现的年动态和下降变化、水汞观测值较低的现象进行了分析,认为王3井水氡观测值出现的年动态变化和水汞观测值2001年的下降与增上数字化观测项目而进行的井-排水系统的改造有关;而2004年下半年水氡、水汞观测值的下降与周良1井的开采有关。文中提出了对王3井的一些改造措施,同时提出了天津水化观测井的重新选井问题。     

怀来4井水汞映震机理分析

分析了河北省怀来县后郝窑热田区的构造特征和怀来4井井孔成孔条件，研究了怀来4井水汞异常与地震的关系，分析该井的映震灵敏性，认为有以下几个方面的原因：①该井处于热田区活动断裂上；②含水层母岩为糜棱岩化片麻岩及泥质物塑状体，怀来4井水汞映震异常与其所处独特的地质构造、成孔条件及汞的物理化学性质的有机结合密不可分，因而有较好的映震效果。     

A comparison between simulated and measured CO_2 and water flux in a subtropical coniferous forest

Using data from eddy covariance measurements in a subtropical coniferous forest, a test and evaluation have been made for the model of Carbon Exchange in the Vegetation-Soil-Atmosphere (CEVSA) that simulates energy transfers and water, carbon and nitrogen cycles based on ecophysiological processes. In the present study, improvement was made in the model in calculating LAI, carbon allocation among plant organs, litter fall, decomposition and evapotranspiration. The simulated seasonal variations in carbon and water vapor flux were consistent with the measurements. The model explained 90% and 86% of the measured variations in evapotranspiration and soil water content. However, the modeled evapotranspiration and soil water content were lower than the measured systematically, because the model assumed that water was lost as runoff if it was beyond the soil saturation water content, but the soil at the flux site with abundant rainfall is often above water saturated. The improved model reproduced 79% and 88% of the measured variations in gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (Re), but only 31% of the variations in measured net ecosystem exchange (NEP) despite the fact that the modeled annual NEP was close to the observation. The modeled NEP was generally lower in winter and higher in summer than the observations. The simulated responses of photosynthesis and respiration to water vapor deficit at high temperatures were different from measurements. The results suggested that the improved model underestimated ecosystem photosynthesis and respiration in extremely condition. The present study shows that CEVSA can simulate the seasonal pattern and magnitude of CO2 and water vapor fluxes, but further improvement in simulating photosynthesis and respiration at extreme temperatures and water deficit is required.     

Spatial and temporal intensification of lateral hyporheic flux in narrowing intra‐meander zones

Meander bends in alluvial rivers morphologically evolve towards meander cut‐off with narrowing intra‐meander necks, and this should steepen hydraulic gradients and intensify intra‐meander hyporheic flux. This research used dye tracking and head loss measurements in a 1 : 500 planimetrically scaled laboratory river table to quantify the spatial and temporal intensification of intra‐meander flux rates at two evolution ages. The younger meander bend, M1, had a sinuosity of 2.3, a river neck width of 0.39 cm, and 0.6% river slope, and the older meander bend, M3, had a sinuosity of 5.2, a river neck width of 0.12 cm, and 0.5% river slope. Flux into and out of the meander bend was estimated along the normalized curvilinear distance s*, with the meander neck at s* = 0.1 and s* = 0.9, the meander centroid at s* = 0.37 and s* = 0.63, and the apex at s* = 0.5. Between the meander centroid and neck, we documented a 60% spatial intensification for M1 and a 90% spatial intensification for M3. Between M1 and M3, we documented a 135% temporal intensification at the neck and a 100% intensification at the centroid. Our empirical spatial and temporal intensification rates involving the M1 and the M3 scenario were one to three times lower than theoretical rates derived from a river evolution model with equivalent M1 and M3 planimetry. Overestimation by the theoretical model was attributed to exaggerated head loss caused by the model neglecting groundwater contributions to river stage. Hyporheic exchange provides critical ecosystem services, and its spatial and temporal variation with meander evolution should be considered in river management. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

2002年南海季风爆发前后西沙海区海-气通量交换及其变化

利用2002年4月24日至6月20日在西沙海区进行的第三次南海海-气通量观测试验资料,采用涡相关法和TOGA COARE2.5b版本通量计算方案,计算了西南季风爆发前后海洋-大气间的通量交换,讨论了辐射、动量、感热通量、潜热通量、海洋热量净收支的时间变化特征及其与气象要素变化的关系.结果表明：西南季风爆发前后,太阳短波辐射、海面净辐射、潜热通量和海洋热量净收支变化特别强烈;通量变化受不同环境要素的影响：感热通量与海-气温差呈正相关关系,与气温呈明显的负相关关系.潜热通量与风速、海-气温差及海面水温均有正相关关系,其中与风速的关系最密切.动量通量（τ）主要随风速变化,它与风速（V）的关系可以表示为τ=0.00185V2-0.00559V+0.01248.     

近百年来湖北太白湖沉积通量变化与流域降水量和人类活动的关系

湖泊沉积通量蕴含了流域降水量及人类活动的丰富信息.依据太白湖沉积岩芯210Pb定结果及CRS模式,建立了近百年来的沉积年代序列,对比分析了不同时期沉积通量变化与流域降水量及人类活动的关系.1900-1920、1928、1937-1942、1953-1954年沉积通量较高的四个时段,分别对应于夏季降水较多的1900-1920、1931、1938-1939、1954年,沉积通量增加主要与夏季降水量偏多,被带入湖泊的泥沙量增加有关.1958-1963年,太白湖流域上游兴建三座水库,对洪水及入湖泥沙起到了调蓄作用,自此之后,太白湖的平均沉积通量减小,降水量已不再是影响沉积通量的主导因素;1958-1970年沉积通量较高,主要是太白湖围垦导致的入湖泥沙量的增加及湖泊面积减小所致;1983-1993年沉积通量的增加则反映了农业生产方式由集体转为个体生产模式后,耕作业的快速发展所导致的水土流失的加重.研究结果证明,采用210Pb强度及CRS模式所建立的太白湖近百年来的沉积年代标尺精度较高(误差小于4年),太白湖沉积环境稳定,可采用其沉积指标进行流域及湖泊环境演化重建.     

大型浅水湖泊与大气之间的动量和水热交换系数——以太湖为例

湖泊水面与大气之间垂直方向的动量、水汽和热量通量与风速、湿度和温度梯度之间存在比例关系,因此在湖泊水-气相互作用研究中,这比例系数(交换系数)是关键因子.在以往的研究中,交换系数通常直接采用水面梯度观测法或海洋大气近地层的参数化方案进行计算.本文采用涡度相关系统和小气候系统仪器在太湖平台上直接观测的通量和气象要素,对上述交换系数(最小均方差原则)进行优化,结果为:动量交换系数C_D10N=1.52×10^-3、水汽交换系数C_E10N=0.82×10^-3、热量交换系数CH10N=1.02×10^-3,与其他内陆湖泊涡度相关观测数据的推导结果一致.本文的研究结果表明:与海洋参数化方案相比,在相同的风速条件下,湖面的空气动力学粗糙度比海洋高,这可能是由于受到水深的影响;如果采用海洋参数化方案,会导致湖泊年蒸发量的估算值偏大40%.太湖的动量、水汽和热量交换系数可以视为常数,可以不考虑稳定度和风速的影响.这是因为本文中83%的数据为近中性条件.敏感性分析表明:如果考虑稳定度的影响,LE模拟值的平均误差降低了0.5 W/m²,H的平均误差降低了0.4 W/m²,u*的计算值没有变化;如果考虑风速的影响,u*模拟值的平均误差降低了0.004 m/s,LE的平均误差升高了1.3 W/m²,H的模拟结果几乎不受影响.这一结果能为湖气相互作用研究提供参考.     

滇西北地区活动构造温泉水汞背景值观测研究

采用流动采样、定点观测分析方法,对滇西北地区部分典型活动断裂带上天然出露的温泉,进行水汞背景值(本底值)调查和观测研究,得出各点位温泉中水汞的正常变化范围、空间分布特征,以及与活动构造的关系,用于滇西北地区地震短临跟踪加密观测,以及强震现场周围的前兆异常监视工作。     

太湖流域浙江片区出入境水量、水质及污染物通量

太湖流域浙江片区受工业和城市废水以及农田地表径流等人为因素的影响,污染问题日益严重,根据2013年的水文巡测以及水质监测资料,分析了太湖流域浙江片区出入境水量和高锰酸盐指数(COD_Mn)、氨氮(NH3-N)、总氮(TN)和总磷(TP)等水质指标的出入境通量及其时空分布.结果表明,2013年太湖流域浙江片区出入境水量以出境为主,出入境断面的首要污染物是TN,其平均浓度在各出入境断面均处于Ⅴ～劣Ⅴ类水平,COD_Mn、NH₃-N和TP的平均浓度总体上达到Ⅱ～Ⅲ类标准.4种污染物的出入境通量均以出境为主,研究区域北部是污染物的主要入境断面,东部是污染物的主要出境断面.净出境水量是影响污染物净出境通量的关键因子,出入境断面水质是净出境通量的主要影响因子.源头控制农业面源污染、将工业废水和城镇生活污水处理达标后排放是减轻太湖流域浙江片区水体污染的关键,是太湖流域水体污染控制和治理的主要措施.     

Simulation of evapotranspiration and carbon dioxide flux in the wheat‐maize rotation croplands of the North China Plain using the Simple Biosphere Model

The North China Plain, which is critical for food production in China, is encountering serious water shortage due to heavy agricultural water requirement. The accurate modelling of carbon dioxide flux and evapotranspiration (ET) in croplands is thus essential for yield prediction and water resources management. The land surface model is powerful in simulating energy and carbon dioxide fluxes between land and atmosphere. Some key processes in the Simple Biosphere Model (Version 2, SiB2) were parameterized based on the observations. The simulated fluxes were tested against the eddy covariance flux measurements over two typical winter wheat/maize double cropping fields. A simple diagnostic parameterisation of soil respiration, not included in SiB2, was added and calibrated using the observations to model the carbon budget. The Ball‐Berry stomatal conductance model was calibrated using observed leaf gas exchange rate, showing that the original SiB2 could significantly underpredict the ET in the wheat field. SiB2 significantly underpredicted soil resistance at the Weishan site, leading to overpredict the ET. Overall, there was a close agreement between the simulated and observed latent heat fluxes and net CO₂ exchange using the re‐parameterized SiB2. These findings are important when the model is used for the regional simulation in the North China Plain. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of frozen soil and snow cover on cold‐season soil water dynamics in Tokachi,Japan

Despite the potential impact of winter soil water movements in cold regions, relatively few field studies have investigated cold‐season hydrological processes that occur before spring‐onset of snowmelt infiltration. The contribution of soil water fluxes in winter to the annual water balance was evaluated over 5 years of field observations at an agricultural field in Tokachi, Hokkaido, Japan. In two of the winters, soil frost reached a maximum depth of 0·2 m (‘frozen’ winters), whereas soil frost was mostly absent during the remaining three winters (‘unfrozen’ winters). Significant infiltration of winter snowmelt water, to a depth exceeding 1·0 m, occurred during both frozen and unfrozen winters. Such infiltration ranged between 126 and 255 mm, representing 28–51% of total annual soil water fluxes. During frozen winters, a substantial quantity of water (ca 40 mm) was drawn from deeper layers into the 0–0·2 m topsoil layer when this froze. Under such conditions, the progression and regression of the freezing front, regulated by the thickness of snow cover, controlled the quantity of soil water flux below the frozen layer. During unfrozen winters, 13–62 mm of water infiltrated to a depth of 0·2 m, before the spring snowmelt. These results indicate the importance of correctly evaluating winter soil water movement in cold regions. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

洞庭湖湿地洪水期甲烷扩散和气泡排放通量估算及水环境影响分析

水体甲烷（CH₄）主要通过气泡和扩散传输排放到大气,这两种途径在CH₄总排放中的相对贡献及环境影响因子目前关注较少.本文以洞庭湖湿地3种生境类型（光滩、苔草、芦苇）为研究对象,通过静态箱法和扩散模型法估算洪水期CH₄总排放通量、扩散排放通量和气泡排放通量,并分析其水体环境因子影响.结果表明：苔草地CH₄总排放量最高,为6.49±3.12 mg（C）/（m²·h）.在3个生境中,CH₄扩散排放占总排放通量的1.34%~3.91%,气泡排放占96.09%~98.66%.扩散排放通量受水体pH、电导率和水温的影响,而CH₄的总排放和气泡排放主要受水温的影响.当水温低于11.7℃时,水体CH₄以扩散排放为主,但当水温高于11.7℃时,水体CH₄主要通过气泡排放.但这一温度阈值是否同样适用于其他类型湿地还需要更多实验验证.本研究对于揭示中低纬度内陆湖泊水体CH₄排放过程有重要意义.     

An improved method for evaluating the seasonal variability of total suspended sediment flux field in the Yellow and East China Seas

The suspended sediment flux field in the Yellow and East China Seas(YECS) displays its seasonal variability.A new method is introduced in this paper to obtain the flux field via retrieval of ocean color remote sensing data,statistical analysis of historical suspended sediment concentration data,and numerical simulation of three-dimensional(3D) flow velocity.The components of the sediment flux field include(i) surface suspended sediment concentration inverted from ocean color remote sensing data;(ii) vertical distribution of suspended sediment concentration obtained by statistical analysis of historical observation data;and(iii) 3D flow field modeled by a numerical simulation.With the improved method,the 3D suspended sediment flux field in the YECS has been illustrated.By comparison with the suspended sediment flux field solely based on the numerical simulation of a suspended sediment transport model,the suspended sediment flux field obtained by the improved method is found to be more reliable.The 3D suspended sediment flux field from ocean colour remote sensing and in situ observation are more closer to the reality.Furthermore,by quantitatively analyzing the newly obtained suspended sediment flux field,the quantity of sediment erosion and deposition within the different regions can be evaluated.The sediment exchange between the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea can be evident.The mechanism of suspended sediment transport in the YECS can be better understood.In particular,it is suggested that the long-term transport of suspended sediment is controlled mainly by the circulation pattern,especially the current in winter.     

岩溶湿地表层水体CO2分压时空分布特征及其扩散通量

为揭示岩溶湿地表层水体二氧化碳分压(pCO₂)的时空分布规律及其扩散通量,以我国最大的岩溶湿地贵州威宁草海为研究对象,分别于2019年7月(丰水期)和12月(枯水期)通过网格布点法,系统采集草海表层湿地水体,测定水样理化指标和离子组成,利用PHREEQCI软件计算水体pCO₂,并基于Cole提出的气体扩散模型估算水-气界面二氧化碳(CO₂)的扩散通量.结果表明:草海湿地表层水体丰水期pCO₂的变化范围为0.44~645.65μatm,平均值为(55.94±124.73)μatm;枯水期变化范围为35.48~707.95μatm,平均值为(310.46±173.54)μatm;丰水期水体整体pCO₂低于枯水期,空间上两期水体均呈现东部区域及河流入湖口处pCO₂较高,而中西部区域pCO₂欠饱和的特征.水-气界面CO₂的扩散通量在丰水期变化范围为-43.27~27.16 mmol/(m²·d),平均值(-34.49±12.93)mmol/(m²·d),枯水期变化范围为-33.36~28.15 mmol/(m²·d),平均值(-8.02±15.85)mmol/(m²·d),与其他岩溶湖库相比,水生植物丰富的草海在两个极端水文期CO₂扩散通量相对较低,总体表现为大气CO₂的汇.     

夏季金沙江下游水-气界面CO2、CH4通量特征初探

河流是连接大陆和海洋两大碳库的桥梁,在全球碳循环中的作用举足轻重.金沙江作为长江的上游段,对区域碳循环及区域化学风化的影响非常重要.于2015年8月8-18日对金沙江下游水-气界面CO_2与CH_4通量特征进行监测与分析.采用顶空平衡法结合薄边界层模型估算法计算表层水体CO_2与CH_4的分压以及水-气界面的交换通量,并分析环境变量与其之间的相关性.研究发现,金沙江下游表层水体p(CO_2)平均值为2724.84±477.18μatm,表层水体p(CH_4)平均值为59.96±6.74μatm;水-气界面CO_2通量平均值为2.24±0.50 mmol/(m2·h),CH_4通量平均值为0.000163±0.00009 mmol/(m2·h),通量与分压趋势基本保持一致.表层水体p(CO_2)与溶解性无机碳浓度、碱度均呈显著正相关,而p(CH_4)与水温、叶绿素a浓度均呈显著正相关,CO_2通量与p(CO_2)、溶解性无机碳浓度、碱度均呈正相关,CH_4通量与p(CH_4)、风速均呈正相关,其他环境因素对通量的影响不明显,仍需进一步研究.金沙江下游水-气界面CH_4扩散通量较低,而CO_2扩散通量在世界主要河流中属于中等水平.     

环太湖江苏段入湖河道污染物通量与湖区水质的响应关系

基于2008-2018年环太湖江苏段入湖河道污染物通量及湖区水质数据,从时空变化及相关关系两个方面探讨了入湖污染物通量与湖区水质的响应关系,并分析了污染物进入湖体影响水质的主要因子.结果表明:太湖污染减排已见成效,氨氮、总氮、高锰酸盐指数和化学需氧量入湖污染物通量整体呈下降趋势,年均下降率分别为8.0%、2.0%、1.6%和2.2%,湖体氨氮和总氮时间格局响应较好,年均下降率分别为2.1%和2.3%.湖体氨氮、总氮、总磷、高锰酸盐指数和化学需氧量与入湖污染物通量整体由西北部、西部湖区向东南部、东部湖区递减,空间格局上响应基本一致.全湖区年尺度总氮、氨氮浓度与入湖河道污染物通量分别呈显著正相关、极显著正相关关系;影响湖区总氮、氨氮的主要因子为入湖河道的总氮、氨氮浓度,其次为入湖河道浓度与原湖区水质差值,因此亟需加强入湖河道水质浓度的控制.     

井水位前驱波与气压、 风、 降雨及强震关系的分析

对山西朔州井与静乐井水位前驱波与气压、 风、 降雨及强震关系进行定量、 半定量统计分析的结果表明, 前驱波引起的井水位变幅与气压引起的井水位的水位变幅不一致, 前驱波的周期与气压、 风、 降雨周期不匹配, 出现的时间不同步, 形态差异也很大, 与短时间集中降雨也无明显的对应关系。 前驱波与强震之间存在较好的对应关系, 对应率在50%左右。 井水位前驱波现象不是气压、 风、 降雨等干扰因素的短期突变所造成的, 可能反映了大震前震源内部信息。