Trans‐dimensional Bayesian inversion of controlled‐source electromagnetic data in the German North Sea

This paper presents the first controlled‐source electromagnetic survey carried out in the German North Sea with a recently developed seafloor‐towed electrical dipole–dipole system, i.e., HYDRA II. Controlled‐source electromagnetic data are measured, processed, and inverted in the time domain to estimate an electrical resistivity model of the sub‐seafloor. The controlled‐source electromagnetic survey targeted a shallow, phase‐reversed, seismic reflector, which potentially indicates free gas. To compare the resistivity model to reflection seismic data and draw a combined interpretation, we apply a trans‐dimensional Bayesian inversion that estimates model parameters and uncertainties, and samples probabilistically over the number of layers of the resistivity model. The controlled‐source electromagnetic data errors show time‐varying correlations, and we therefore apply a non‐Toeplitz data covariance matrix in the inversion that is estimated from residual analysis. The geological interpretation drawn from controlled‐source electromagnetic inversion results and borehole and reflection seismic data yield resistivities of ～1 Ωm at the seafloor, which are typical for fine‐grained marine deposits, whereas resistivities below ～20 mbsf increase to 2–4 Ωm and can be related to a transition from fine‐grained (Holocene age) to unsorted, coarse‐grained, and compacted glacial sediments (Pleistocene age). Interface depths from controlled‐source electromagnetic inversion generally match the seismic reflector related to the contrast between the different depositional environments. Resistivities decrease again at greater depths to ～1 Ωm with a minimum resistivity at ～300 mbsf where a seismic reflector (that marks a major flooding surface of late Miocene age) correlates with an increased gamma‐ray count, indicating an increased amount of fine‐grained sediments. We suggest that the grain size may have a major impact on the electrical resistivity of the sediment with lower resistivities for fine‐grained sediments. Concerning the phase‐reversed seismic reflector that was targeted by the survey, controlled‐source electromagnetic inversion results yield no indication for free gas below it as resistivities are generally elevated above the reflector. We suggest that the elevated resistivities are caused by an overall decrease in porosity in the glacial sediments and that the seismic reflector could be caused by an impedance contrast at a thin low‐velocity layer. Controlled‐source electromagnetic interface depths near the reflector are quite uncertain and variable. We conclude that the seismic interface cannot be resolved with the controlled‐source electromagnetic data, but the thickness of the corresponding resistive layer follows the trend of the reflector that is inclined towards the west.     

羌塘盆地中部地区地壳S波速度结构及构造意义

羌塘盆地是我国最大的海相盆地.本文根据在羌塘盆地内布设的27个宽频带地震观测台站记录的远震波形数据,利用非线性复谱比反演算法得到各台站下方100 km深度范围内S波速度结构.结果表明.羌塘地区Moho深度较为平缓,平均深度为61 km;北羌塘地壳内低速层广泛分布;北羌塘具有两个较大的沉积盆地,龙尾错和白滩湖坳陷,沉积厚度分别有10 km和15 km.尽管北羌塘下地壳受到强烈的新生代火山岩作用改造,但是这种深部岩浆热作用会加速烃源岩中有机质的热演化历程.北羌塘两个盆地具有很好的油气前景.与北羌塘低速层分布相比,南羌塘下低速层更深,可能与班公怒江洋于中生代的俯冲消减及拉萨地体北向俯冲有关.     

天然地震频率范围内首都圈地区近地表S波速度结构c

近地表沉积层的S速度结构是强地面震动模拟和地震灾害估计的重要参数,尤其是浅部的S波速度结构在工程上具有重要的应用意义．目前大部分资料来源于工程钻孔或工程地震探测,很少有地震波频率范围内的S波速度结构,或者深度达数百米的S波速度结构．通过对天然地震的井下摆波形记录的分析,提供了一种测量地震波频率范围深达数百米的S波速度的有效方法．收集了首都圈地区44个井下摆的近震记录,利用广义射线方法确认了直达S波及其在地表的反射波震相,并通过测量不同台站上两个震相的到时差,获得了首都圈地区浅层100——500m 深度范围的S波速度结构．研究发现,浅部100m 的平均S波速度低于300m/s．当深度增加到500m 时S波速增加到800m/s,平均速度梯度为0.8 （m/s）/m．研究结果表明,井下摆地震记录波形是研究沉积盆地浅层S波结构的重要资料,将为沉积盆地的强地面震动模拟提供重要基础参数．      

大三江盆地及邻区地壳结构研究

收集了大三江盆地及其邻区区域地震台网及多个流动台阵的连续波形及远震事件资料,采用背景噪声层析成像和接收函数叠加方法,分别获得了研究区三维S波速度结构、基底及莫霍面深度和泊松比.结果显示:浅层速度结构较好地反映了地表地形及地质特征,三江盆地呈明显的低速,虎林和勃利等小型盆地的S波速度也相对较低,而小兴安岭、张广才岭等则呈...     

Constraints on velocity-depth trends from rock physics models

Estimates of depth, overpressure and amount of exhumation based on sonic data for a sedimentary formation rely on identification of a normal velocity–depth trend for the formation. Such trends describe how sonic velocity increases with depth in relatively homogeneous, brine‐saturated sedimentary formations as porosity is reduced during normal compaction (mechanical and chemical). Compaction is ‘normal’ when the fluid pressure is hydrostatic and the thickness of the overburden has not been reduced by exhumation. We suggest that normal porosity at the surface for a given lithology should be constrained by its critical porosity, i.e. the porosity limit above which a particular sediment exists only as a suspension. Consequently, normal velocity at the surface of unconsolidated sediments saturated with brine approaches the velocity of the sediment in suspension. Furthermore, porosity must approach zero at infinite depth, so the velocity approaches the matrix velocity of the rock and the velocity–depth gradient approaches zero. For sediments with initially good grain contact (when porosity is just below the critical porosity), the velocity gradient decreases with depth. By contrast, initially compliant sediments may have a maximum velocity gradient at some depth if we assume that porosity decreases exponentially with depth. We have used published velocity–porosity–depth relationships to formulate normal velocity–depth trends for consolidated sandstone with varying clay content and for marine shale dominated by smectite/illite. The first relationship is based on a modified Voigt trend (porosity scaled by critical porosity) and the second is based on a modified time‐average equation. Baselines for sandstone and shale in the North Sea agree with the established constraints and the shale trend can be applied to predict overpressure. A normal velocity–depth trend for a formation cannot be expressed from an arbitrary choice of mathematical functions and regression parameters, but should be considered as a physical model linked to the velocity–porosity transforms developed in rock physics.     

Geophysical survey on the tectonic and sediment distribution of Qinghai Lake basin

1 Introduction in China, with an area of 4400 km2 and a drainage area With the advancement of global change study, peo- of nearly 29,660 km2[2]. Occurring at a “climatic triple ple are paying more and more attention to the conti- junction” among the East Asian monsoon, Indian nental environment (in which we reside), its evolution Monsoon and the Westerly Jet Stream, it lies in the and its future tendency. As a component of the global transitional belt of the east monsoonal humid areas sys…     

庐枞盆地浅表地壳速度成像与隐伏矿靶区预测

利用反射地震初至波可以精确反演地壳速度结构和构造信息.对庐枞盆地采集的高分辨地震数据,运用初至波层析成像方法,反演得到了该区1200 m以上的浅表地壳速度结构信息.找矿信息总是同地球化学异常联系紧密,对采集于炮孔深处的岩屑、泥砂样品进行了地球化学分析,发现了多处显著的金属元素异常.对五条测线的速度成像结果及其映射的地下岩性结构和炮孔地球化学分析结果进行了相关性对比分析.结果显示,庐枞盆地的沉积岩、火山岩和侵入岩具有不同的速度范围,侵入岩具有高波速特征,地球化学信息高异常往往出现在高速侵入岩体的上方;精细的速度信息蕴含着丰富的浅表地壳结构变化特征,与庐枞矿集区已知的地质、岩体、构造和矿体分布存在着良好的对应关系.速度成像结果可以准确刻画地下隐伏侵入岩体的空间分布形态,结合地球化学分析异常和重磁探测等信息,预测隐伏矿床,提供深部找矿靶区.     

基于微动方法研究五大连池火山区尾山火山锥浅层剪切波速度结构

为了研究五大连池火山区尾山火山锥浅层三维波速结构特征,在尾山火山锥附近区域布设了无线地震检波器密集台阵,记录连续地震背景噪声波形数据.基于微动方法(拓展空间自相关方法)提取了台站间2~5 Hz频率范围的Rayleigh面波相速度频散曲线.利用面波层析成像方法反演获得2~5 Hz Rayleigh面波二维相速度图像,基于每一个网格节点的频散曲线,进一步反演获得了尾山火山锥附近区域地表至700m深度的三维剪切波速度结构.成像结果显示:在0~150m较浅深度,靠近尾山火山锥区域显示为相对高速异常,远离火山锥区域则显示为相对低速异常.而至150~700m较深深度,波速异常特征与浅部相反,靠近尾山火山锥的区域显示为相对低速异常,远离火山锥的区域显示为相对高速异常.在远离尾山火山锥区域,浅层的相对低速异常可能与松散沉积层有关,深部的高速异常则反映了结晶变质岩的影响.在靠近尾山火山锥区域,浅部的相对高速异常应该反映了出露地表的玄武岩,而深部的相对低速异常则可能反映了火山通道周围广泛发育的破碎裂隙结构及其火山喷发后孔隙流体填充的影响.     

Structure of the crust and upper mantle beneath the Balearic Islands (Western Mediterranean)

Data are presented from deep seismic sounding along the strike of the Balearic Islands carried out in 1976. The interpretation of the data gives the following results: A sedimentary cover of 4 km around Ibiza to 7 km under Mallorca overlies the crystalline basement. This basement with a P-wave velocity of 6.0 km/s at the top reaches a depth of at least 15 km under Ibiza and 17 km under Mallorca with an increase to 6.1 km/s at these depths. The crust-mantle boundary lies at a depth of 20 km and 25 km, respectively. A well documented upper-mantle velocity of 7.7 km/s is found along the entire profile. The Moho rises to a depth of 20 km about 30 km north of Mallorca and probably continues rising towards the center of the North Balearic Sea. The newly deduced crustal structure together with previously determined velocity-depth sections in the North Balearic Sea as well as heat flow and aeromagnetic data can be interpreted as an extended rift structure caused by large-scale tensional processes in the upper mantle. The available data suggest that the entire zone from the eastern Alboran Sea to the area north of the Balearic Islands represents the southeastern flank of this rift system. In this model the provinces of Spain along the east coast would represent the northwestern rift flank.     

Anisotropic migration of coincident VSP and cross-hole seismic reflection surveys

Seismic depth migration may result in false reflector positioning and destructive interference when an incorrect velocity field is used to convert from time to depth. The assumption of isotropy to describe anisotropic rocks is one major source of error in the velocity model, although individual survey images may not be impaired by such an approximation. When different survey types such as VSP and cross-hole reflection seismics have coincident illumination of the subsurface, it is important not only to produce consistent images upon depth migration, but also to determine a consistent velocity model. Using real data sets as examples, both objectives are successfully achieved when anisotropy is incorporated into the velocity model.     

3D S-wave velocity structure of the Ningdu basin in Jiangxi province inferred from ambient noise tomography with dense array

The Ningdu basin, located in southern Jiangxi province of southwest China, is one of the Mesozoic basin groups which has exploration prospects for geothermal energy. A study on the detailed velocity structure of the Ningdu basin can provide important information for geothermal resource exploration. In this study, we deployed a dense seismic array in the Ningdu basin to investigate the 3D velocity structure and discuss implications for geothermal exploration and geological evolution. Based on the dense seismic array including 35 short-period (5 s-100 ?Hz) seismometers with an average interstation distance of ～5 ?km, Rayleigh surface wave dispersion curves were extracted from the continuous ambient noise data for surface wave tomographic inversion. Group velocity tomography was conducted and the 3D S-wave velocity structure was inverted by the neighborhood algorithm. The results revealed obvious low-velocity anomalies in the center of the basin, consistent with the low-velocity Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. The basement and basin-controlling fault can also be depicted by the S-wave velocity anomalies. The obvious seismic interface is about 2 ?km depth in the basin center and decreases to 700 ?m depth near the basin boundary, suggesting spatial thickness variations of the Cretaceous sediment. The fault features of the S-wave velocity profile coincide with the geological cognition of the western boundary basin-controlling fault, which may provide possible upwelling channels for geothermal fluid. This study suggests that seismic tomography with a dense array is an effective method and can play an important role in the detailed investigations of sedimentary basins.     

Insight into the Crustal Structure of the Eastern Marmara Region, NW Turkey

In order to investigate crustal structure beneath the eastern Marmara region, a seismic refraction survey was conducted across the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) zone in north west Turkey. Two reversed profiles across two strands of the NAF zone were recorded in the Armutlu Highland where a tectonically active region was formed by different continents. We used land explosions in boreholes and quarry blasts as seismic sources. A reliable crustal velocity and depth model is obtained from the inversion of first arrival travel times. The velocity-depth model will improve the positioning of the earthquake activities in this active portion of the NAF. A high velocity anomaly (5.6–5.8 km s⁻¹) in the central highland of Armutlu block and the low velocity (4.90 km s⁻¹) pattern north of Iznik Lake are the two dominant features. The crustal thickness is about 26 ± 2 km in the north and increases to about 32 ± 2 km beneath the central Armutlu block in the south. P-wave velocities are about 3.95 km s⁻¹ to 4.70 km s⁻¹ for the depth range between about 1 km and 5 km in the upper crust. The eastern Marmara region has different units of upper crust with velocities varying with depth to almost 8 km. The high upper crust velocities are associated with Armutlu metamorphic rocks, while the low velocity anomalies are due to unconsolidated sedimentary sequences. The western side of Armutlu block has complex tectonics and is well known for geothermal sources. If these sources are continuous throughout the portions of the crust, it may be associated with a granitic intrusion and deformation along the NAF zone. That is, the geothermal sources associated with the low velocity may be due to the occurrence of widespread shear heating, even shear melting. The presence of shear melting may indicate the presence of crustal fluid imposed by two blocks of the NAF system.     

利用爆破地震揭示华北克拉通基底的高分辨速度结构——大丰—包头折射剖面的探测结果

大丰—包头剖面以"高密度观测点距与炮距"为特点,我们在1334 km测线上获得了21炮高信噪比的地震资料.在对Pg波震相特点分析基础上利用反演方法处理、构建了基底的精细结构图像,揭示了沿剖面不同构造地块基底结构的差异.苏北盆地基底埋深4.5~9.0 km、苏鲁隆起1.5~2.0 km,基底埋深与速度结构的强烈起伏变化可视其为华北与扬子板块碰撞、挤压构造环境下形成复杂的构造格局在地震学上的体现;鲁西隆起区基底埋深浅、速度高,结构稳定;华北盆地Pg波到时滞后、视速度低,基底埋深7.0~10.km,速度结构与基底面存在局部的起伏变化.诸多现象揭示出该区为新生代沉积巨厚、规模较大的基底坳陷区.同时在盆地内不同构造单元基底结构呈局部分块、凹陷与凸起并存的构造格局,显示出新生代沉积活动显著、变化强烈、结构不稳定的构造特点;太行山前断裂、聊兰断裂是具有显著地震学标志的断裂构造带,断裂两侧基底界面呈现出"断崖式塌陷"和速度结构的强烈横向非均匀性.综合研究认为,太行山前断裂是华北地区一条重要的构造带,它的复杂性不仅体现在两侧地形地貌、地层介质的截然不同,其基底埋深及速度结构、地壳及地幔岩石圈结构均存在显著的差异,其重要的标志是太行山以东不仅地壳厚度发生了相当规模的减薄,岩石圈的厚度也明显减薄,亦即形成了华北克拉.通破坏在东西部其基底一地壳一岩石圈的结构在空间上具有明显的差异性及强烈的横向非均匀性.     

中国境内天山地壳上地幔结构的地震层析成像

根据横跨中国境内天山的库车—奎屯宽频带流动地震台阵和区域地震台网记录的近震和远震P波走时数据,利用地震层析成像方法重建了沿该地震台阵剖面下方400 km深度范围内地壳上地幔的P波速度结构.结果表明：沿新疆库车—奎屯剖面,天山地壳具有明显的横向分块结构,且南、北天山地壳显示了较为强烈的横向变形特征,表明塔里木地块对天山地壳具有强烈的侧向挤压作用;在塔里木和准噶尔地块上地幔顶部有厚度约60～90 km的高速异常体,塔里木—南天山下方的高速异常体产生了较为明显的弯曲变形,而准噶尔—北天山下方的高速异常体向南一直俯冲到中天山南侧边界下方300 km的深度,两者形成了不对称对冲构造;在塔里木和准噶尔地块下方150～400 km深度存在上地幔低速体,其中塔里木地块一侧的上地幔低速物质上涌到南天山地块的下方;在塔里木—南天山200～300 km深度范围的上地幔存在高速异常体,它可能是地幔热物质向上迁移过程融断的塔里木岩石圈的拆离体. 上述结果表明,塔里木地块的俯冲可能涉及整个岩石圈深度,但其前缘仅限于南天山的北缘;青藏高原隆升的远程效应可能不但驱动塔里木岩石圈向北俯冲,同时还造成天山造山带南侧上地幔物质的涌入;天山造山带上地幔广泛存在的低速异常有助于其上地幔的变形,而上地幔物质的强烈非均匀性应有助于推动天山造山带上地幔小尺度地幔对流的形成;根据研究区地壳上地幔速度结构特征推断,新近纪以来天山快速隆升的主要力源来自青藏高原快速隆升的远程效应,相对软弱的上地幔为加速天山造山带的变形和隆升创造了必要条件.     

Radar experiments in isotropic and anisotropic geological formations (granite and schists)1

In order to understand various aspects of radar wave propagation, a survey of electromagnetic wave behaviour relative to the geological characteristics of the formations prospected was undertaken. The sites chosen for the tests were a granite quarry and an underground schist working. By investigating an electrically resistive isotropic site and a conductive anisotropic site, it was demonstrated that non-conventional use of a radar system (antennae raised, various orientations of the transmitter/receiver, etc.) could improve data quality, and could allow information other than reflector depth to be collected (volume scattering intensity, isotropy, etc.). By studying wave propagation velocities, we underlined the difficulties encountered in establishing a velocity versus depth law, despite recourse to seismic data processing, such as NMO corrections. The results of field experiments, complemented by laboratory measurements of dielectric permittivities, clearly showed anisotropy effects: in the case of a path that is perpendicular to the schistosity plane, an electromagnetic wave propagates more slowly and is more attenuated than a wave parallel to the schistosity plane.     

基于人工地震资料的珠江口地区最小一维P波速度模型

珠江口地区位于南海北部大陆的边缘,具有洋陆过渡型地壳特征,且NE向滨海断裂带从其中穿过,强震风险不可忽视.文中基于2015年珠江口海陆联合三维人工地震探测数据,人工进行初至P波震相拾取,并使用VELEST程序分别反演了陆域和海域的最小一维P波速度模型(走时残差均方根最小)和台站校正结果.台站校正结果的空间分布与区域地形...     

面波频散与接收函数联合反演南北地震带北段壳幔速度结构

通过对南北地震带北段区域所布设的676个流动地震台站观测资料进行处理,联合反演面波频散与接收函数数据,获得了研究区内地壳厚度、沉积层厚度的分布情况以及地壳上地幔高分辨率S波速度结构成像结果.反演结果显示研究区地壳厚度从青藏高原东北缘向外总体逐渐变薄,秦岭造山带地壳厚度较同属青藏高原东北缘的北祁连块体明显减薄;鄂尔多斯盆地及河套盆地分布有非常厚的沉积层,阿拉善块体部分区域也有一定沉积层分布,沉积层与研究区内盆地位置较为一致;松潘—甘孜块体、北祁连造山带等青藏高原东北缘总体表现为S波低速异常;在中下地壳,松潘—甘孜块体下方的低速体比北祁连造山带下方的低速体S波速度值更小、分布深度更浅,更有可能对应于部分熔融的地壳;鄂尔多斯盆地在中下地壳以及上地幔内有着较大范围的高速异常一直延伸到120 km以下,而河套盆地地幔只在80 km以上部分有着高速异常的分布,此深度可能代表了河套盆地的岩石圈厚度,来自深部地幔的热物质上涌造成了该区域的岩石圈减薄;阿拉善块体在地壳和上地幔都表现出高低速共存的分布特征,暗示阿拉善块体西部岩石圈可能受青藏高原东北缘的挤压作用发生改造.     

An integrated method for resolving the seismic complex near-surface problem

We describe an integrated method for solving the complex near‐surface problem in land seismic imaging. This solution is based on an imaging approach and is obtained without deriving a complex near‐surface velocity model. We start by obtaining from the data the kinematics of the one‐way focusing operators (i.e. time‐reversed Green's functions) that describe propagation between the acquisition surface and a chosen datum reflector using the common‐focus‐point technology. The conventional statics solutions obtained from prior information about the near surface are integrated in the initial estimates of the focusing operators. The focusing operators are updated iteratively until the imaging principle of equal traveltime is fulfilled for each subsurface gridpoint of the datum reflector. Therefore, the seismic data is left intact without any application of time shifts, which makes this method an uncommitted statics solution. The focusing operators can be used directly for wave‐equation redatuming to the respective reflector or for prestack imaging if determined for multiple reflecting boundaries. The underlying velocity model is determined by tomographic inversion of the focusing operators while also integrating any hard prior information (e.g. well information). This velocity model can be used to perform prestack depth imaging or to calculate the depth of the new datum level. We demonstrate this approach on 2D seismic data acquired in Saudi Arabia in an area characterized by rugged topography and complex near‐surface geology.     

速度差对井间走时层析成像质量的影响及其改进方法

在井间地震初至走时层析成像中,随着相邻地质体速度差的增大,使得射线分布不均匀,以及网格剖分不合适,导致层析成像结果不理想.物理和数值模型的井间走时层析成像表明：当速度差超过300%时,层析结果畸变较大;在300%～150%之间时,层析结果较好;低于150%时,层析结果好.在此基础上,提出了井间多尺度初至走时层析成像方法,即对同一模型采用多种网格剖分来同时进行层析成像,以获得研究区域的速度图像.数学和物理模型的井间多尺度走时层析结果表明：该方法很好地兼顾了层析成像的分辨率和精度,极大地改善了井间地震层析成像的质量.即使速度差超过30%,其多尺度的层析结果仍然较好.因此,这种方法具有实际应用的潜力.     

Seismic wave velocities in the sedimentary cover of Poland: Borehole data compilation

A knowledge of seismic wave velocities in the sedimentary cover is of great importance for interpreting reflection and refraction seismic data, deep seismic soundings and regional and global seismic tomography. This is particularly true for regions characterized by significant thicknesses and a complex sedimentary cover structure. This paper presents the results of an analysis of seismic P-wave velocities in the sedimentary cover of Poland, a complex area of juxtaposition of major tectonic units: the Precambrian East European Craton, the Palaeozoic Platform of Central and Western Europe, and the Alpine orogen represented by the Carpathian Mountains. Based on vertical seismic profiling data from 1188 boreholes, the dependence of velocity versus depth was determined for regional geological units and for successions from the Tertiary and Quaternary to the Cambrian. The data have been approximated by polynomials, and velocity-depth formulas are given down to 6000 m depth. The velocities in the sedimentary cover have been compared with those from other areas in Europe.