K0条件下颗粒形状特征对砂土剪切模量的影响

为了研究颗粒形状特征对砂土剪切模量的影响,选取4种形状不同的砂样（福建标准砂和人工石英砂）作为研究对象,通过扫描电镜获取其颗粒微观图像,使用Image Pro Plus软件和自编Matlab程序提取试样颗粒的形状特征。采用改进的半径角和轮廓指数综合描述颗粒偏离圆或椭圆的程度以及棱角变化程度,并基于这两个参数提出颗粒形状因子来综合表征颗粒的形状特征。之后在K0条件下通过弯曲元试验获得不同竖向荷载对应的4个试样的剪切模量,试验结果表明,砂土颗粒的形状因子与砂土的剪切模量具有良好的相关性。最后基于Hertz-Mindlin接触模型,推导出引入形状因子的砂土剪切模量理论计算公式,该计算公式与实测值吻合良好。     

南京新近沉积土动剪切模量比与阻尼比的试验研究

为了确定珊瑚砂的动剪切模量和阻尼比等分析岛礁场地稳定性的主要动力学参数,本文针对我国南海西沙群岛某岛礁珊瑚砂,利用共振柱-弯曲元系统,研究了围压、相对密实度及饱和度对该珊瑚砂动剪切模量和阻尼比的影响规律。研究发现：(1)在饱和状态下,该珊瑚砂样的最大动剪切模量(G₀)与围压及相对密实度整体呈现正相关关系,并且随着围压的增高G₀对相对密实度的敏感性逐渐降低;(2)在非饱和情况下,该珊瑚砂样的动剪切模量比的整体范围略高于饱和状态下的动剪切模量比,而其阻尼比略低于饱和状态下的阻尼比;(3)该珊瑚砂样出现最小阻尼比和最大G₀的饱和度约为10%;(4)在同样的围压下,珊瑚砂的特殊结构导致建立在硅质砂相对密实度和孔隙比的G₀经验预测公式在预测珊瑚砂G₀时分别出现了偏高和偏低的情况,本文根据珊瑚砂G₀随围压的变化规律,对珊瑚砂G₀经验预测公式进行了修正。研究成果可为南海西沙岛礁珊瑚砂场地稳定性分析中动力学参数取值提供参考。     

A constitutive model for sand based on non-linear elasticity and the state parameter

The paper describes the development of a constitutive model for a poorly graded sand, which was used in geotechnical experiments on buried pipes (reported elsewhere). The sand was tested extensively in the laboratory to determine the state parameter constants. Triaxial tests on the sand included conventional drained triaxial compression tests, as well as more specialized shearing tests at constant mean effective stress and others at constant volume. Single element simulation of the triaxial tests was performed to validate the proposed constitutive model. The adopted model allowed non-linear elastic behaviour prior to yielding. After yielding of the sand, the state parameter-based model for the sand permitted non-associated plastic flow. Dilation and frictional strength were both dependent on the current value of the state parameter. The combination of laboratory testing and single element modelling resulted in the selection of a single set of material constants for the soil, which adequately described the full range of triaxial tests. Subsequently the model was applied to the problem of a plate loading test on the sand and the model predictions were compared with the test data.     

Numerical simulation of cone penetration testing using a new critical state constitutive model for sand

A new perspective on the numerical simulation of cone penetration in sand is presented, based on an enhanced critical state model implemented in an explicit-integration finite element code. Its main advantage, compared to similar studies employing simpler soil models, is that sand compressibility can be described with a single set of model parameters, irrespective of the stress level and the sand relative density. Calibration is based on back-analysis of published centrifuge experiments, while results of the methodology are also compared against independent tests. Additional analyses are performed to investigate sand state effects on cone penetration resistance, in comparison with empirical expressions from the literature.     

Particle shape: a review and new methods of characterization and classification

Shape is a fundamental property of all objects, including sedimentary particles, but it remains one of the most difficult to characterize and quantify for all but the simplest of shapes. Despite a large literature on the subject, there remains widespread confusion regarding the meaning and relative value of different measures of particle shape. This paper re‐examines the basic concepts of particle shape and suggests a number of new and modified methods which are widely applicable to a range of sedimentological problems; it is shown that the most important aspects of particle form are represented by the I/L ratio (elongation ratio) and S/I ratio (flatness ratio). A combination of these two ratios can be used to classify particles in terms of 25 form classes. A method of obtaining a quantitative measure of particle roundness using simple image analysis software is described, and a new visual roundness comparator is presented. It is recommended that measurements of both roundness and circularity (a proxy measure of sphericity) are made on grain images in three orthogonal orientations and average values calculated for each particle. A further shape property, irregularity, is defined and a classification scheme proposed for use in describing and comparing irregular or branching sedimentary particles such as chert and coral.     

Influence of particle shape and angularity on the behaviour of granular materials: a numerical analysis

This paper analyses the influence of grain shape and angularity on the behaviour of granular materials from a two‐dimensional analysis by means of a discrete element method (Contact Dynamics). Different shapes of grains have been studied (circular, isotropic polygonal and elongated polygonal shapes) as well as different initial states (density) and directions of loading with respect to the initial fabric. Simulations of biaxial tests clearly show that the behaviour of samples with isotropic particles can be dissociated from that of samples with anisotropic particles. Indeed, for isotropic particles, angularity just tends to strengthen the behaviour of samples and slow down either local or global phenomena. One of the main results concerns the existence of a critical state for isotropic grains characterized by an angle of friction at the critical state, a critical void ratio and also a critical anisotropy. This critical state seems meaningless for elongated grains and the behaviour of samples generated with such particles is highly dependent on the direction of loading with respect to the initial fabric. The study of local variables related to fabric and particle orientation gives more information. In particular, the coincidence of the principal axes of the fabric tensor with those of the stress tensor is sudden for isotropic particles. On the contrary, this process is gradually initiated for elongated particles. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Estimation of areas of sand and dust emission in the Hexi Corridor from a land cover database: an approach that combines remote sensing with GIS

The present study combined remote sensing with geographical information system (GIS) technology to interpret Landsat TM images from 1996 to 2000 and establish a land cover database for the Hexi Corridor of China’s Gansu Province. The areas of sand and dust emission and trends in their change were extracted by analyzing the database, with the following results: In 2000, the source area for sand and dust storms totaled nearly 170,000 km², accounting for 75.1% of the study region. The emission area decreases from as much as 70,000 km² in winter and spring to around 58,000 km² in summer and autumn, accounting for 41.1 and 34.1% of the source area, respectively. During the 4 years of the study period, the emission area decreased by nearly 57 km² in winter and spring (a 0.1% change); however, the vulnerability of the land surface to wind erosion increased in ca. 190 km² and decreased in ca. 102 km². Although the area of dust emission decreased from 1996 to 2000, the area vulnerable to wind erosion increased by ca. 87 km², and the increased number of sand and dust storm days in the region between 2000 and 2003 appears to be correlated with this increase.     

Particle size distribution analysis of sand-sized particles by laser diffraction: an experimental investigation of instrument sensitivity and the effects of particle shape

Laser diffraction is now widely used for particle size distribution analysis of sediments and soils. The technique can be very precise, and offers advantages of speed and cost over many other methods when used to analyse mixtures of sand, silt and clay. This study presents the results of an experimental investigation that examined the sensitivity of the Beckman-Coulter LS230 instrument to mixtures of different grain populations and differences in particle shape. The instrument was found to have high sensitivity to coarse particles in a finer matrix (detection threshold 1–2%), but much lower sensitivity to finer particles in a coarser mixture (detection threshold 12–17%). Experiments using near-spherical ballotini showed that laser analysis provides very similar values to dry sieving for the mean, median and mode, but for a range of natural sand samples values for the mean, median and mode were offset by 8–21%, with an average of ca 15%, compared with sieving. Analysis using a Beckman-Coulter RapidVUE instrument, which provides both size and shape information, provided support for the hypothesis that the differences between laser analysis and sieving are partly attributable to the effects of particle shape. However, an additional factor is the way in which the laser software interprets the optical diffraction data. The software predicts a high degree of log-normality in the size distribution, such that highly skewed, truncated or bimodal samples are poorly represented. Experiments using sieved fractions of ballotini indicated that, even with near-perfectly spherical particles, the particle size distribution predicted by the laser software includes a relatively large percentage of particles outside the sieve class limits.     

A numerical study of particle motion and two‐phase interaction in aeolian sand transport using a coupled large eddy simulation – discrete element method

Wind‐blown sand movement, considered as a particle‐laden two‐phase flow, was simulated by a new numerical code developed in the present study. The discrete element method was employed to model the contact force between sand particles. Large eddy simulation was used to solve the turbulent atmospheric boundary layer. Motions of sand particles were traced in the Lagrangian frame. Within the near‐surface region of the atmospheric boundary layer, interparticle collisions will significantly alter the velocity of sand. The sand phase is quite dense in this region, and its feedback force on fluid motion cannot be ignored. By considering the interparticle collision and two‐phase interaction, four‐way coupling was achieved in the numerical code. Profiles of sand velocity from the simulations were in good agreement with experimental measurements. The mass flux shows an exponential decay and is comparable to reported experimental and field measurements. The turbulence intensities and shear stress of sand particles were estimated from particle root‐mean‐square velocities. Distributions of slip velocity and feedback force were analysed to reveal the interactions between sand particles and the continuous fluid phase.     

Fractal models for the fragmentation of rocks and soils: a review

Fragmentation, the process of breaking apart into fragments, is caused by the propagation of multiple fractures at different length scales. Such fractures can be induced by dynamic crack growth during compressive/tensile loading or by stress waves during impact loading. Fragmentation of rocks occurs in resoonse to tectonic activity, percussive drilling, grinding and blasting. Soil fragmentation is the result of tillage and planting operations. Fractal theory, which deals with the scaling of hierarchical and irregur systems, offers new opportunities for modeling the fragmentation process. This paper reviews the literature on fractal models for the fragmentation of heterogeneous brittle earth materials. Fractal models are available for the fragmentation of: (1) classical aggregate; (2) aggregates with fractal pore space; and (3) aggregates with fractal surfaces. In each case, the aggregates are composed of building blocks of finite size. Structural failure is hierarchical in nature and takes place by multiple fracturing of the aggregated building blocks. The resulting number-size distribution of fragments depends on the probability of failure, P(1/bⁱ) at each level in the hierarchy. Models for both scale-invariant and scale-dependent are reviewed. In the case of scale-invariant P(1/bⁱ)< 1, theory predict: D_f = 3 + log [P(1/bⁱ)]/log[b] for classical aggregates; D_f=D_m+log[P(1/bⁱ)]/log[b] for aggregates with fractal pore space; and D_f=D_s for aggregates with fractal surfaces. where b is a scaling factor and D_f, D_m and D_s are the fragmentation, mass and surface fractal dimensions, respectively. The physical significance of these parameters is discussed, methods of estimating them are reviewed, and topics needing further research are identified.     

褶皱冲断带物理模拟实验研究进展

褶皱冲断带油气资源丰富,统计表明全球探明油气储量约14%分布在褶皱冲断带。自从1815年地质学家第一次以模拟实验的方式验证了褶皱形成于岩层遭受水平挤压变形的二百多年来,针对褶皱冲断带的物理模拟实验研究无疑是最卓有成效的研究领域方向之一。本文从追溯早期模拟实验先驱,到近二十年来国内外相关研究进展综述,着重分析和评述物理模拟实验研究对于前陆褶皱冲断带构造理论发展的主要贡献。强调造山带临界楔体理论以及基底滑脱层强度、流体超压和变形岩层内聚强度等对构造变形过程的控制作用。主要介绍的实验性标志成果有：(1)褶皱冲断带构造变形的生长规律;(2)褶皱冲断带的构造变形机制;(3)褶皱冲断带中构造变形的主控因素。我们的目的是提供引人入胜的物理模拟实验研究成果,吸引更多现在和未来的研究人员理解和重视物理模拟工作,借助日益进步的实验装置和技术方法,促进盆地构造研究在学科发展道路上,一步步实现从定性走向定量、从二维走向三维、从几何学和运动学走向动力学的飞跃。     

板块剪式汇聚加地体拼贴——中特提斯消亡的新模式

中特提斯是中生代中晚期存在于南、北大陆之间的海洋。该海洋在晚白垩世消亡后,遗留长千余公里的班公湖-怒江板块结合带。在大量研究成果中,对中特提斯如何消亡这一重大问题至今分歧甚大。不少研究者持洋壳俯冲消亡(东太平洋模式)观点,但在俯冲方向上却有向南或向北之别。笔者则认为中特提斯是一个具有众多互不相通、时代早晚不同的狭窄洋盆的特殊海洋,其消亡过程中根本未发生过大规模的洋壳俯冲,故提出剪式闭合加地体逐次拼贴的盆内聚敛消亡模式,即中特提斯的消亡由早侏罗世晚期羌塘-三江板块与冈底斯-念青唐古拉板块及其中的嘉玉桥-怒山地体,首先在东段无俯冲汇聚开始,中、西段此时基本上仍处于扩张状态,地体裂离与新的狭窄小洋盆产生同时进行,中特提斯呈东闭西张的剪刀状。中晚侏罗世,中西段北侧出现构造地体往羌塘-三江板块拼贴与南部地体裂离出新地体的复杂局面。至早白垩世末,新老地体拼贴、裂离过程结束,呈剪刃状的南、北两个板块逐渐拼合,中特提斯的中、西段主体亦相继消亡,仅余西南部部分海域。白垩纪末,由于新特提斯洋壳向北大规模俯冲的强力推动,冈底斯-念青唐拉板块和羌塘-三江板块完全汇聚并发生陆-陆碰撞,中特提斯在洋壳和过渡型地壳褶皱、冲断的盆内汇聚和碰撞造山中彻底消亡。这一新的消亡模式既符合班公湖-怒江板块结合带洋壳残片的年龄东老西新、海水由东向西退却、有多条时代不同的蛇绿岩带,不整合于蛇绿岩之上的地层东为中上侏罗统,西南为下白垩统和老第三系的实际资料,也符合中特提斯仅有互不相通狭窄小洋盆在“化整为零”的闭合过程中,难以发生大规模洋壳俯冲的动力学机制。还解决了该结合带两侧始终找不到沟、弧、盆体系的俯冲模式这一致命难题。     

A critical review and re-investigation of the Pleistocene deposits between Cranfield Point and Kilkeel,Northern Ireland: Implications for regional sea-level models and glacial reconstructions of the northern Irish Sea basin

The coastline of County Down includes sites that are pivotal to understanding the history of the last glaciation of the northern Irish Sea Basin in relation to relative sea level and regional glacial readvances. The cliff sections display evidence that has been used to underpin controversial models of glaciomarine sedimentation in isostatically-depressed basins followed by emergent marine and littoral environments. They also provide crucial evidence claimed to constrain millennial-scale ice sheet oscillations associated with uniquely large and rapid sea-level fluctuations. This paper reviews previous work and reports new findings that generally supports the ‘terrestrial’ model of glaciation, involving subglacial accretion and deformation of sediment beneath grounded ice. Deep troughs were incised into the till sheet during a post Late Glacial Maximum draw-down of ice into the Irish Sea Basin. Ice retreat was accompanied by glaciomarine accretion of mud in the troughs during a period of high relative sea level. The trough-fills were over-ridden, compacted, deformed and truncated during a glacial re-advance that is correlated with the Clogher Head Readvance. Grounding-line retreat accompanied by rapid subaqueous ice-proximal sedimentation preserved a widespread subglacial stone pavement. Raised beach gravels cap the sequence. The evidence supports an uninterrupted fall in relative sea level from c. 30?m that is consistent with sea level curves predicted by current glacio-isostatic adjustment modelling. Critical evidence previously cited in support of subaerial dissection of the troughs, and hence rapid fall and rise in relative sea level prior to the deposition of the glaciomarine muds, is not justified.     

Criteria for the identification of ventifacts in the geological record: A review and new insights

Ventifacts (wind-worn stones) are typical of terrestrial environments remained very long without any vegetation, under hot or cold climates. Therefore, within the sedimentary record, they can allow recognizing desert conditions, even where no aeolian dune deposits are preserved. There seems that, in the recent literature, pebbles and cobbles from various palaeoenvironments were mistaken for ventifacts. This may partly be explained by the scatter and relative scarcity of illustrations to which refer. The aim of this paper is to help recognizing ventifacts in the sedimentary record, based on a critical review of the diagnostic properties generally used, and on new studies permitting to suggest additional criteria. After an evaluation of the sedimentary contexts favourable to preserving ventifacts, the distinctive characters that could be seen on each one are treated in order of increasing alteration of the original appearance: surface features, medium-scale features (new types of pit especially), and general shape. Finally, the problem of distinguishing between ventifacts and aquafacts is approached.     

Methods for the estimation of loss of life due to floods: a literature review and a proposal for a new method

This article deals with methods for the estimation of loss of life due to flooding. These methods can be used to assess the flood risks and to identify mitigation strategies. The first part of this article contains a comprehensive review of existing literature. Methods have been developed for different types of floods in different regions. In general these methods relate the loss of life in the flooded area to the flood characteristics and the possibilities for evacuation and shelter. An evaluation showed that many of the existing methods do not take into account all of the most relevant determinants of loss of life and that they are often to a limited extent based on empirical data of historical flood events. In the second part of the article, a new method is proposed for the estimation of loss of life caused by the flooding of low-lying areas protected by flood defences. An estimate of the loss of life due to a flood event can be given based on: (1) information regarding the flood characteristics, (2) an analysis of the exposed population and evacuation, and (3) an estimate of the mortality amongst the exposed population. By analysing empirical information from historical floods, new mortality functions have been developed. These relate the mortality amongst the exposed population to the flood characteristics. Comparison of the outcomes of the proposed method with information from historical flood events shows that it gives an accurate approximation of the number of observed fatalities during these events. The method is applied to assess the consequences for a large-scale flooding of the area of South Holland, in the Netherlands. It is estimated that the analysed coastal flood scenario can lead to approximately 3,200 fatalities in this area.

下古生界有机质成熟度评价新参数：笔石表皮体光学特征再研究

下古生界缺失高等植物来源的镜质组,其有机质成熟度的确定一直是油气源岩评价的难题之一。基于对含笔石页岩的反射光显微镜观察和低成熟度含笔石页岩与煤共置的热压模拟实验,研究了下古生界海相页岩笔石表皮体的光性特征及其热演化规律,探讨了笔石表皮体随机反射率作为有机质热演化参数的可行性。下古生界海相页岩非粒状笔石表皮体呈条带状顺层或者碎片状产出、颗粒较大,光学特征类似于镜质组,适合于测量反射率。非粒状笔石表皮体随机反射率■换算为等效镜质组反射率■的关系式为■。采用笔石表皮体随机反射率分析了上扬子地区东部五峰组—龙马溪组页岩的有机质成熟度分布特征,认为非粒状笔石表皮体随机反射率是一个实用的下古生界烃源岩有机质成熟度指标,为确定下古生界有机质成熟度提供了一种可信的解决方案。     

A critical review of the glaciomarine model for Irish sea deglaciation: evidence from southern Britain,the Celtic shelf and adjacent continental slope

In support of their ‘glaciomarine’ model for the deglaciation of the Irish Sea basin, Eyles and McCabe cited the occurrence of distal glaciomarine mud drapes onshore in the Isles of Scilly and North Devon, and of arctic beach‐face gravels and sands around the shores of the Celtic Sea. Glacial and sea‐level data from the southern part of the Irish Sea in the terminal zone of the ice stream and the adjacent continental slope are reviewed here to test this aspect of the model. The suggestion that the glacial sequences of both the Isles of Scilly and Fremington in North Devon are glaciomarine mud drapes is rejected. An actively calving tidewater margin only occurred early in the deglacial sequence close to the terminal zone in the south‐central Celtic Sea. Relative sea‐levels were lower, and therefore glacio‐isostatic depression less, than envisaged in the glaciomarine model. Geochronological, sedimentological and biostratigraphical data indicate that the raised beach sequences around the shores of the Celtic Sea and English Channel were deposited at, or during regression soon after, interglacial eustatic highstands. Evidence for ice‐rafting at a time of high relative sea‐levels is restricted to a phase(s) earlier than the Late Devensian. These data indicate that the raised beach sequences have no bearing on the style of Irish Sea deglaciation. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A virtual voyage through 3D structures generated by chaotic mixing of magmas and numerical simulations: a new approach for understanding spatial and temporal complexity of magma dynamics

In this contribution, we present a virtual voyage through 3D structures generated by chaotic mixing of magmas and numerical simulations with the aim to highlight the power of 3D representations in the understanding of this geological phenomenon. In particular, samples of mixed juveniles from Salina island (Southern Italy) are reconstructed in 3D by serial lapping and digital montage and numerical simulations are performed by using a 3D chaotic dynamical system. Natural and simulated magma mixing structures are visualized by using several multimedia tools including animations and “virtual reality” models. It is shown that magma interaction processes can generate large spatial and temporal compositional heterogeneities in magmatic systems. The same topological structures are observed in both 3D reconstructed rock samples and chaotic numerical simulations, indicating that the mixing of magmas is governed by chaotic dynamics. The use of 3D multimedia models gives the opportunity to penetrate into magma mixing structures and to understand their significance in the context of magma dynamics. Such an approach is very powerful since multimedia tools can strongly capture the attention of the reader bringing him/her into an interactive and memorable geological experience. Electronic supplementary material  enclosed:     

潮汐沉积韵律计算新方法及其应用 ——以四川江油地区中三叠统雷口坡组藻白云岩为例

提出一种新的高精确度的方法来计算沉积旋回韵律,即以样品断面光学灰度参数作为韵律沉积变化的替代指标,利用数字图像分析软件,通过最小二乘法、一阶差分法等数据处理后,定量计算沉积旋回韵律。对采自四川江油西南部中三叠统雷口坡组的纹层藻白云岩样品进行研究,观察样品抛光面和薄片,确定藻白云石具有明显的潮汐沉积韵律纹层。应用此方法计算得出研究区样品共有217个潮汐层偶对,层偶对最大厚度为4.2mm,通过人工计数对比证明了该方法的可行性。这种技术方法与传统方法相比更省时、更高效,可推广性高,同时也可应用于其它类型频段韵律旋回中。