Cone penetration test in sand: A numerical-analytical approach

Separation of the effects of initial horizontal stress and relative density on cone tip resistance in sandy soils has been a complicated issue for many years. In order to overcome this problem, a numerical modeling of CPT which has been verified by calibration chamber tests, has been used in this paper to achieve a reliable analytical solution. The analytical solution has resulted in two relationships for sleeve friction and cone tip resistance in terms of the initial conditions of sandy soil. Based on the presented solution, the initial horizontal stress and relative density can be determined according to CPT measurements.     

Discrete element modeling of crushable sands considering realistic particle shape effect

This study proposed a novel approach for generating crushable agglomerates with realistic particle shapes in discrete element modeling (DEM). The morphologies of sand particles were obtained by X-ray micro-computed tomography scanning and image processing. Based on the particle surface reconstructed by spherical harmonic analysis, the crushable agglomerates with realistic particle shapes can be generated in DEM simulations. The results of single particle crushing tests showed that particle shapes significantly influence the fracture patterns and crushing strengths of sand particles. Furthermore, two one-dimensional compression tests were conducted to investigate the particle shape effect on micro- and macro-mechanical behaviors of crushable sands.     

Quantification of displacement and particle crushing around a penetrometer tip

Particle crushing occurs near the tip of a penetrometer and influences the development of the tip resistance.To study particle crushing near a penetrometer tip,a cone penetrometer was monotonically jacked and then load-tested in medium dense and dense silica sand samples prepared in a halfcylindrical calibration chamber with viewing windows.During the tests,images of the advancing penetrometer and the surrounding soil were taken using digital cameras and analyzed to obtain the displacement and strain fields around the penetrometer using the Digital Image Correlation(DIC)technique.Subsequently,soil samples were collected near the tip of the penetrometer using a novel agarimpregnation technique and digitized using an X-ray microscope.The digitized samples were analyzed to reconstruct the three-dimensional models of individual particles,generating the gradation and relative breakage parameters of the sand around the cone penetrometer.     

A numerical investigation of the incremental behavior of crushable granular soils

The mechanical behavior of granular materials is characterized by strong nonlinearity and irreversibility. These properties have been differently described by a variety of constitutive models. To test any constitutive model, experimental data relative to the nature of the incremental stress–strain response of the material is desirable. However, this type of laboratory data is scarce because of being expensive and difficult to obtain. The discrete element method has been used several times as an alternative to obtain incremental responses of granular materials. Crushable grains add one extra source of irreversibility to granular materials. Crushability has been variously incorporated into different constitutive models. Again, it will be helpful to obtain incremental responses of crushable granular materials to test these models, but the experimental difficulties are increased. Making use of a recently introduced crushing model for discrete element simulation, this paper presents a new procedure to obtain incremental responses in discrete analogs of granular crushable materials. The parallel probe approach, previously used for uncrushable discrete analogs, is here extended to account for the presence of crushable grains. The contribution of grain crushing to the incremental irreversible strain is identified and separately measured. Robustness of the proposed method is examined in detail, paying particular attention to aspects such as dynamic instability or crushing localization. The proposed procedure is later applied to map incremental responses of a discrete analog of Fontainebleau sand on the triaxial plane. The effect of stress ratio and granular state on plastic flow characteristics is highlighted. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cavity expansion analyses of crushable granular materials with state‐dependent dilatancy

Crushability is one of the important behaviors of granular materials particularly under high stress states, and affects both the deformability and strength of the materials that are in essence associated with state‐dependent dilatancy. In this presentation, first, a new critical state model is proposed to take into account the three different modes of compressive deformation of crushable granular materials, i.e. particle rearrangement, particle crushing and pseudo‐elastic deformation. Second, the governing equations for cavity expansion in crushable granulates are introduced, in which the state‐dependent dilatancy as well as the bounding surface plasticity model are used. Then, the procedure to obtain semi‐analytical solutions to cavity expansion in the material is described in detail, in which a commercial differential equation solver is employed. Finally, cavity expansion analyses are carried out on Toyoura sand, a well‐documented granular material, to demonstrate the effects of crushability and state‐dependent dilatancy. The study shows that particle crushing does occur at both high stress and critical states and affects the stress fields and the deformation behavior of the material surrounding the cavity in association with state‐dependent dilatancy. This leads to conclusion that particle crushing and state‐dependent dilatancy have to be taken into account when cavity expansion theory is used to interpret cone penetration tests and pressuremeter tests. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Estimating spatial correlation structures based on CPT data

Spatial correlation structures are usually used while modelling inherent uncertainty associated with soil properties. To retrieve this information a sufficient number of measurements and equal intervals between measurements or samples are always required. However, in practice, it is not usual to conduct site investigation in that way subject to a limited budget. Therefore, it is of interest to understand the possible bias created by using samples with unequal intervals. This research focuses on estimating the vertical spatial correlation structures of cone penetration tests (CPT) data conducted at a liquefaction site in Taiwan. The appropriate fitting range used in calibrating the correlation model is also discussed. The results show that cone tip resistance has larger correlation distances than that of sleeve friction. The estimated correlation distances of the CPT profiles are similar while using an equal sampling interval within a certain fitting range (denoted as the critical interval of measurements in this research). The results indicate that the effect of using different curve-fitting ranges is relatively insignificant for correlation distances of sleeve friction, whereas the correlation distances of cone tip resistance are more sensitive to different curve-fitting ranges. Moreover, the mean values of correlation distances are more constant for the equal sampling interval cases than for the unequal interval cases.     

Feasible packing of granular materials in discrete-element modelling of cone-penetration testing

This paper explores how the discrete-element method (DEM) was found to play an increasingly important role in cone penetration test (CPT) where continuum-mechanics-based analysis tools are insufficient. We investigated several crucial features of CPT simulations in the two-dimensional DEM. First, the microparameters (stiffness and friction) of discrete material tailored to mimic clean, saturated sand, which is used in cone-penetration tests, were calibrated by curve-fitting drained triaxial tests. Then, three series of cone-penetration simulations were conducted to explore (1) top boundary conditions, (2) reasonable size of discrete particles at different initial porosities, and (3) limit initial porosity of the model for a balance between accurate representation and computational efficiency. Further, we compared the cone-penetration resistance obtained in the laboratory and numerical simulations for the range of relative densities.     

沉桩过程中钙质砂颗粒破碎特性模拟研究

基于二维离散单元法,对沉桩过程中钙质砂颗粒破碎情况进行了模拟。采用簇粒来模拟易破碎的钙质砂颗粒,并用形状与变形特性相同的聚粒单元来模拟不可破碎颗粒,对这两种单元特性进行对比,分析不同桩型的沉桩过程、桩周土体的力学响应、沉桩过程中钙质砂的颗粒破碎现象。结果表明：破碎颗粒将引起桩侧土体级配的重新调整,与桩体接触好于不可破碎土体;桩处于颗粒破碎的钙质砂中,其沉桩速度较快,对地基土扰动小于未发生颗粒破碎的情况;对于不同桩型、不同土层,桩体压入过程中,桩周土体应力场分布具有相似性;靠近桩端附近,土中水平应力和竖向应力急剧增大,形成应力核;同等条件下发生颗粒破碎的钙质砂地基土中,桩端应力峰值高于不可破碎土体。     

静压预应力混凝土管桩土塞效应试验研究

对淤泥质黏土互层以及粉土两种土层条件下静压预应力混凝土管桩的土塞效应进行了试验研究。现场及室内试验结果显示,管桩径厚比越大、土层条件越为坚硬则形成的土塞相对高度越大。上硬下软的土层分布易形成闭塞现象,而上软下硬的情况则易导致土塞的滑动。沉桩过程中,管壁端阻与静力触探锥尖阻力具有极为相似的变化规律,两者比值不随土塞高度变化率及沉桩深度的变化而改变。管壁端阻与锥尖阻力的相关性与土层条件密切相关,对于淤泥质黏土和粉土而言,两者比值分别为0.59和0.81。土塞的分层与地基土层分布基本一致,且分层界面为向上凸起的曲面。土塞形成过程中挤密效应是显著的,黏聚力则因扰动的影响有不同程度的降低。直剪试验显示,土塞抗剪强度的时效性是显著的。粉土中预应力混凝土管桩有效土塞高度约为5～6倍桩径,为整个土塞高度的70%;而淤泥质黏土中有效土塞高度大于4倍桩径。试验结果与已有的研究结果较为接近     

Experience of Vibrocompaction in Calcareous Sand of UAE

The study is concerned with the influence of various factors on vibro compaction in calcareous soils, This include effect of carbonate content, and influence of pore water pressures in sand, settlements during vibrocompaction, vibroaccelerations during sand column installation compared to earthquake accelerations and finally the liquefaction design based on average CPT parameters. Previous experiences with calcareous sands and literature review confirm the necessity to apply a correlation factor for calcareous material to the raw cone penetration resistance CPT values obtained in the field. Because of the very fragile grains of the Dubai calcareous sands the penetration resistance will be influenced by crushing and grinding. To accommodate for effect of calcareous sands on measured CPT values, a best fit correlations formula called here “correlation factor” is developed. A parametric dynamic triaxial liquefaction testing programme has been executed on representative samples with loose and dense zones. Representative testing parameters for field conditions and earthquake design accelerations have been applied indicating that ground improvement is necessary. It was observed during the dynamic triaxial tests that the whole soil mass consisting of dense columns and looser zones in between behaves jointly, and therefore compaction control using an average-CPT approach is possible.     

一种静力触探模型箱试验装置的研制及其试验研究

设计了一套静力触探模型箱试验装置,该装置可以在模型箱水平面内任意位置进行贯入试验,贯入速率在一定范围可控,贯入倾角可调节。将该装置用于TJ-1模拟月壤静力触探力学特性的研究,试验结果表明：地基表层模拟月壤发生刺入剪切破坏;贯入阻力随贯入深度的增加而增加;探杆周围同一深度处土体的水平土压力表现出轴对称特征,其值在探头靠近土压力盒过程中逐渐增大至最大值,后随探头远离土压力盒又逐渐减小至0,且不同深度土体水平土压力峰值随贯入深度增加而增大;贯入点正下方土体的垂直土压力随贯入深度的增加而增加,主要影响范围约为距探头200 mm处。基于以上试验研究,表明该模型箱的设计是合理的,且TJ-1模拟月壤力学特性的研究成果能够为将来涉及到TJ-1模拟月壤的航天试验提供必要的技术参考。     

Cone crusher chamber optimization using multiple constraints

The chamber geometry is one of the key factors that influences the performance of a cone crusher. The design of the chamber geometry should take product quality and crushing efficiency into account. In this paper the kinematics of rock material in a crushing chamber, as interparticle breakage occurs, has been analyzed and the chamber division is achieved. Based on the chamber division and a population balance model, the method for chamber geometry design is presented. Combining the empirical model for predicting particle shape with the size distribution model, a flakiness prediction model is proposed. With the size reduction model and flakiness prediction model as constraints, an optimization of the crushing chamber is achieved. Finally, the validity of the crushing chamber optimization model has been verified by an appropriate prototype test.     

Numerical ANFIS-Based Formulation for Prediction of the Ultimate Axial Load Bearing Capacity of Piles Through CPT Data

This study explores the potential of adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS) for prediction of the ultimate axial load bearing capacity of piles (P_u) using cone penetration test (CPT) data. In this regard, a reliable previously published database composed of 108 datasets was selected to develop ANFIS models. The collected database contains information regarding pile geometry, material, installation, full-scale static pile load test and CPT results for each sample. Reviewing the literature, several common and uncommon variables have been considered for direct or indirect estimation of P_u based on static pile load test, cone penetration test data or other in situ or laboratory testing methods. In present study, the pile shaft and tip area, the average cone tip resistance along the embedded length of the pile, the average cone tip resistance over influence zone and the average sleeve friction along the embedded length of the pile which are obtained from CPT data are considered as independent input variables where the output variable is P_u for the ANFIS model development. Besides, a notable criticism about ANFIS as a prediction tool is that it does not provide practical prediction equations. To tackle this issue, the obtained optimal ANFIS model is represented as a tractable equation which can be used via spread sheet software or hand calculations to provide precise predictions of P_u with the calculated correlation coefficient of 0.96 between predicted and experimental values for all of the data in this study. Considering several criteria, it is represented that the proposed model is able to estimate the output with a high degree of accuracy as compared to those results obtained by some direct CPT-based methods in the literature. Furthermore, in order to assess the capability of the proposed model from geotechnical engineering viewpoints, sensitivity and parametric analyses are done.     

Modelling size effect on rock aggregates strength using a DEM bonded-cell model

Empirical evidence has shown that particle breakage affects the mechanical behaviour of granular materials. The source of this mechanism takes place at the particle scale, and the main consequence on the macromechanical behaviour is increasing compressibility. Due to the inverse correlation between particle size and particle crushing strength, coarse rockfill materials are particularly vulnerable to mechanical degradation due to particle breakage. However, such coarse materials do not fit in standard laboratory devices, and the alternative of large sample testing is usually unavailable or too expensive. Alternatively, recent works have proposed multi-scale approaches using the discrete element method (DEM) to carry out numerical testing of coarse crushable materials, although few studies have focused on size effects. This article presents the application of a DEM bonded-cell model to study particle size-strength correlation on angular rock aggregates. Each particle is modelled by a cluster of perfectly rigid polyhedral cells with Mohr–Coulomb contact law. Constant cell density within particles implies that the presence of potential fragmentation planes increases with size. Therefore, particle strength decreases with size. A comprehensive sensitivity analysis was carried out through 1477 particle crushing simulations in a given particle size. Based on published experimental data on calcareous rock aggregates, part of the simulations were used for calibration, and 97 additional simulations of a coarser size fraction were performed for validation. The results show a good agreement with the empirical data in terms of size effect and data scatter through Weibull statistics.

     

DEM studies on the effect of particle breakage on the critical state behaviours of granular soils under undrained shear conditions

Acta Geotechnica - A number of discrete element analyses of undrained triaxial shear tests on crushable assemblies are performed using 3-dimensional particle flow code (PFC3D). The undrained shear...     

海洋静力触探在海上平台桩基承载力计算中的应用

静力触探探测具有原位性、连续性、高效性以及高分辨率的优点,利用海洋静力触探探测成果计算海上平台桩基承载力具有非常大的应用空间。以胜利油田埕岛海域某平台为例,使用ROSON100型海洋静力触探仪对平台各桩腿开展原位探测,同步进行钻探取样及室内土工参数测试。分别利用静力触探和钻探取样测试成果计算了平台桩基承载力,对比讨论了3种桩基承载力计算方法之间的异同。结果表明:3种方法对应的桩侧摩阻力随埋深变化整体趋势基本一致;基于一定区域工程经验,钻探规范法和静探间接法得到的桩端阻力、单桩极限承载力基本吻合,而静探直接法得到的桩端阻力和单桩极限承载力相较前两者明显偏大;考虑以粉砂作为持力层的前提下3种桩基极限承载力计算方法表现出较好的兼容性。研究成果可为海洋工程桩基承载力计算提供新的借鉴,具有一定科学意义和应用价值。     

Quantification of particle crushing in consideration of grading evolution of granular soils in biaxial shearing: A probability‐based model

A probability‐based model is presented to estimate particle crushing and the associated grading evolution in granular soils during isotropic compression and prepeak shearing in biaxial tests. The model is based on probability density functions of interparticle and intraparticle stress (ie, particle normalized maximum shear stress and particle average maximum shear stress) derived from discrete element method simulations of biaxial tests. We find that the probability density functions of normalized maximum shear stress are dependent on the current sample grading, implying coupling effects between particle crushing and sample grading such that the particle crushing is affected by the current sample grading, and the grading change is also dependent on the current particle crushing extent. To incorporate these coupling effects into the model, particle crushing and grading change are calculated for each load increment, in which the crushing probability of a particle during any loading increment is denoted as the corresponding increment of probability of the internal maximum shear stress exceeding its maximum shear strength. The model shows qualitative agreement with published experimental data. The effects of the model parameters, including initial porosity, particle strength, initial grading, and crushing mode, on the calculated results are discussed and compared with previous studies. Finally, the strengths and limitations of the model are discussed.     

Interpretation of cone penetration results in multilayered soils

A simple approximate analysis is presented for interpretation of cone penetration results when the cone resistance is affected by layering of soils with different stiffnesses. It is argued that the cone resistance senses the presence of a nearby layer elastically, and an approximate elastic analysis is developed to quantify the effect. Good comparisons with calibration chamber experimental results are found.     

Numerical simulation of drained triaxial test using 3D discrete element modeling

A discrete element modeling of granular material was carried out using a 3D spherical discrete model with a rolling resistance, in order to take into account the roughness of grains. The numerical model of Labenne sand was generated, and the desired porosity was obtained by a radius expansion method. Using numerical triaxial tests the micro-mechanical properties of the numerical material were calibrated in order to match the macroscopic response of the real material. Numerical simulations were carried out under the same conditions as the physical experiments (porosity, boundary conditions and loading). The pre-peak, peak and post-peak behavior of the numerical material was studied. The calibration procedure revealed that the peak stress of the sand sample does not only depend on local friction parameters but also on the rolling resistance. The larger the value of the applied rolling resistance, the higher the resulting stress peak. Furthermore, the deformational response depends strongly on local friction. The numerical results are quantitatively in agreement with the laboratory test results.