QUANTIFYING SEDIMENT TRANSPORT PROCESSES IN PERIGLACIAL MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENTS AT A CATCHMENT SCALE USING GEOMORPHIC PROCESS UNITS

The research record on the quantification of sediment transport processes in periglacial mountain environments in Scandinavia dates back to the 1950s. A wide range of measurements is available, especially from the Kärkevagge region of northern Sweden. Within this paper satellite image analysis and tools provided by geographic information systems (GIS) are exploited in order to extend and improve this research and to complement geophysical methods. The processes of interest include mass movements such as solifluction, slope wash, dirty avalanches and rock- and boulder falls. Geomorphic process units have been derived in order to allow quantification via GIS techniques at a catchment scale. Mass movement rates based on existing field measurements are employed in the budget calculations. In the Kärkevagge catchment, 80% of the area can be identified either as a source area for sediments or as a zone where sediments are deposited. The overall budget for the slopes beneath the rockwalls in the Kärkevagge is approximately 680 t a⁻¹ whilst about 150 t a⁻¹ are transported into the fluvial system.     

Historical Constraints on Slope Movement Age: a Case Study at Broadway, United Kingdom

The Broadway area of the Cotswolds has been extensively investigated in an attempt to delineate areas of slope instability, including'relict'landslides, which may have been initiated under periglacial climatic conditions. It is, therefore, useful both in terms of the geomorphology and of the understanding of the evolution of the area, to investigate the rates and timing of any reactivation and subsequent movements of landslides in this area. The remains of ridge and furrow cultivation can be seen extensively throughout the Cotswolds. This particular agricultural practice, which documentary evidence suggests dates back to Anglo-Saxon times (approximately 10th century AD), has been disturbed in many places by slope movements. A detailed study of Parish Records and other local his-torical sources has revealed that ridge and furrow cultivation ceased on Parliamentary Enclosure, which in this area, occurred in 1771. Therefore, it is possible to identify patterms of slope movement between these dates. Landslides have been identified by ground mapping and aerial photography, and can be divided into three categories. Firstly, active landslides which are those which have shown evidence of movement during the study period. Secondly, suspended landslides, which show evidence of movement, but have not been observed to move during the study period. In this context, this has been taken to mean landslides, which have shown evidence of movement since 1771. Thirdly, relict landslides which have shown no evidence of movement since 1771 and thus were probably active under a different climatic regime. By incorporating historical data with the geomorphological survey it has been possible to identify areas of potentially difficult ground for engineering geomorphological purposes.     

Coastal processes and cliff recession between Gabicce and Pesaro (northern Adriatic Sea): a case history

Cliff recession on the high rocky coast between Gabicce and Pesaro Adriatic sea causes a wide range of mass movement processes on the whole slope, affecting both the bedrock and the overburden. The outcropping late Miocene rock formations are represented by marls, marly limestones, dark laminated mudstones and bedded sandstones and marls. Mass movements are common because of stratification and discontinuities in the rocks that, together with the presence of groundwater and weathering processes, reduce the overall strength of the slopes. A model for the evolution of this coastal area is proposed, which involves cyclic basal erosion, followed by mass movement that favours debris accumulation at the base of the cliff. The longshore currents have to then remove the material before a new cycle can begin.     

MUDBOIL AND ICE‐WEDGE DYNAMICS INVESTIGATED BY ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY,GROUND TEMPERATURES AND SURFACE MOVEMENTS IN SVALBARD

Arctic tundra surfaces are dominated by a variety of patterned ground forms. Whereas a large number of studies have described morphology, structure and processes of patterned ground, few have monitored detailed patterned ground dynamics and subsurface environments continuously. We applied electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) to understand near‐surface conditions of two types of patterned ground, ice‐wedge polygons and mudboils in Svalbard, where periglacial processes associated with permafrost are intensively monitored. Automated monitoring shows surface movement characterized by annual cycles of frost heave and thaw settlement, the amounts and rates of which are influenced by the intensity of ice segregation. A time series of ERT shows (1) a distinct resistivity boundary delimiting the active‐layer depth, (2) seasonal variation in resistivity controlled by thermo‐hydrological dynamics and (3) spatial variation in resistivity reflecting desiccation in summer and intensive ice segregation in winter. These results demonstrate ERT as a useful complementary technique for monitoring active‐layer depths and near‐surface hydrological conditions at periglacial patterned ground sites, where automated soil thermal and moisture measurements are limited.     

Topographic radiation balance models: Sensitivity and application in periglacial geomorphology

Direct solar radiation integrated over one year is a function of latitude and time of year, and topographic slope , aspect and shadowing control the local distribution. Recently, several spatial models have been developed which estimate the radiation balance based on digital elevation models, taking into account aspect, slope and shadowing effects. For the periglacial realm, these models are integrated both in models estimating possible occurrence of mountain permafrost and in studies of active layer dynamics. In this article our aim is to assess and discuss sensitivity and validations of the radiation balance model SRAD, in comparison with two other topographic-based radiation models. The study site and field data are from Finse, Southern Norway.     

Detailed geomorphological survey of a small mountain drainage area, Abisko, northern Swedish Lapland

A thorough geomorphological survey of a small (2km²) drainage area has been conducted using digital magnification of aerial photographs in conjunction with field visits. The result presented is a geomorphological map where individual geomorphological features down to metre size can be identified. The study was done in connection with a project focusing on the relationship between geomorphological processes and lacustrine sedimentation. Good knowledge of the geomorphological setting and the related process activity in the catchment is important in studies using lacustrine sediments as environmental archives.
The survey reveals a small–scale geomorphology dominated by a number of different periglacial upfreezing forms together with bedrock–controlled slope processes. Three different geographically separated geomorphological assemblages were recognised with few sediment transportation pathways connecting them. Composition of substrate, soil water content and vegetation cover combined with different slope angles are probably the most important factors controlling the distribution of the geomorphological features.     

Detailed geomorphological survey of a small mountain drainage area, Abisko, northern Swedish Lapland

A thorough geomorphological survey of a small (2km²) drainage area has been conducted using digital magnification of aerial photographs in conjunction with field visits. The result presented is a geomorphological map where individual geomorphological features down to metre size can be identified. The study was done in connection with a project focusing on the relationship between geomorphological processes and lacustrine sedimentation. Good knowledge of the geomorphological setting and the related process activity in the catchment is important in studies using lacustrine sediments as environmental archives.
The survey reveals a small–scale geomorphology dominated by a number of different periglacial upfreezing forms together with bedrock–controlled slope processes. Three different geographically separated geomorphological assemblages were recognised with few sediment transportation pathways connecting them. Composition of substrate, soil water content and vegetation cover combined with different slope angles are probably the most important factors controlling the distribution of the geomorphological features.     

Recent patterned grounds development on a glacier surface (Dovrefjell,central Norway): an ephemeral periglacial activity in a paraglacial context

Researches carried out on the main glacier of the Dovrefjell massif, Scandes Mountains, Norway (62° N; 9° E) point to recent periglacial features which are presently directly developed on the ice. This original location raises the problem of their morphodynamic significance and a hypothesis of ephemeral periglacial activity in a paraglacial context is proposed here.     

CHEMICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES ON THE VANTAGE PEAK NUNATAK,JUNEAU ICEFIELD,SOUTHERN ALASKA

On the Vantage Peak nunatak in the Juneau Icefield of southeastern Alaska, grus and soils display evidence of extensive chemical alteration in a self-evidently periglacial environment. Accompanying the alteration of bedrock to grus and soil is a decrease in grain size. Grus is dominated by very coarse sand while the soils are predominantly fine sand. Grain-size reduction is attributed primarily to mineral grain dissolution. Total chemical analyses show that alkali earths (calcium and magnesium) and alkalis (sodium and potassium) are lost as weathering progresses, while silicon and iron increase relative to resistant elements. Secondary clay minerals present in the grus and soils appear to have been derived from clay-size primary minerals. Vermiculite is the principal secondary clay mineral and appears to have formed by the alteration of biotite. Scanning electron microscopy shows that quartz and feldspars are primarily weathered by dissolution with no evidence of feldspar transformation to secondary clays. Superimposed on these weathering transformations is evidence of eolian processes. Chemical weathering processes, notably dissolution and clay mineral transformation, do occur in the periglacial environment of the Vantage Peak nunatak and are clearly an important component of the periglacial geomorphic process suite.     

Characteristics and Altitudinal Distribution of Periglacial Decay Phenomena in the Massif of Rondane,Central Norway

The Norwegian massif of Rondane is part of the Scandes Mountains and is subject to polar, oceanic and continental influences. Because of its climatic context and its quartzitic structure, the massif has one of the thickest functional periglacial belts in Europe (1200 m). This belt is not fixed considering its translation in altitude since the end of the Little Ice Age. This mobility is continuing and involves periglacial decay dynamics which are revealed by numerous and various periglacial forms in the field. Because of their frequency in the massif and also their sensitivity to climate fluctuations, earth patches and small non‐sorted circles have a diagnostic value for current periglacial climate fluctuations. The major aim of this study is to propose several indicators of this periglacial decay and to highlight its consequences on periglacial belt mobility because these landforms enable the delimitation of a critical belt of decay in the massif.     

Widespread syn-sedimentary deformation on a muddy deep-water basin-floor: the Vischkuil Formation (Permian), Karoo Basin, South Africa

The ∼380-m-thick mudstone–siltstone-dominated Vischkuil Formation represents the initiation phase of a 1.3-km-thick prograding basin floor to slope to shelf succession that marks a significant increase in the rate of siliciclastic sediment supply to the early Karoo Basin in the Permian. In the upper Vischkuil Formation three well exposed, widespread (∼3000 km²) 10–70-m-thick intervals of deformed strata are encased within undeformed sediments. Such chaotic mass movement deposits that are mappable over areas comparable with seismic-scale mass transport deposits are commonly associated with submarine slope settings. However, the surrounding lithofacies and the correlation of distinctive marker beds indicate that these deformation intervals developed in a distal low gradient basin floor setting. The deformed intervals comprise a lower division of tight down-flow verging folds dissected by thrust planes that sole out onto a highly sheared décollement surface that are interpreted as slides. The lower divisions are overlain by an upper division of chaotic lithofacies with large contorted clasts of sandstone supported by a fine-grained matrix interpreted as a debrite. The juxtaposition of these lithofacies, the distribution of thickness of the divisions, and their close kinematic relationships indicate that the emplacement of the debris-flows triggered and drove the underlying slide, in a low-gradient distal setting. Individual beds in the deformed intervals can be mapped laterally into undeformed strata indicating limited movement of the slide. Therefore, widespread zones of syn-sedimentary deformation in deep-water settings do not necessarily indicate a slope setting and should not be used as single criterion to determine depositional setting. When associated with major debrites they may be developed on a flat basin floor.     

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF LATE QUATERNARY PARAGLACIAL ROCK-SLOPE FAILURES ON SKIDDAW GROUP TERRAIN, LAKE DISTRICT, NORTHWEST ENGLAND

ABSTRACT. Eight relict rock-slope failures (RSFs) on Skiddaw Group terrain in the Lake District, northwest England, are described. Five of the failures are rockslides, one is a product of slope deformation, and two are compound features with evidence for sliding and deformation in different sectors. As none appears to have been overrun and modified by glacier ice it is concluded that they all post-date the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM ; c. 21 ± 3 cal. ka bp ). Slope stress readjustments resulting from glacial and deglacial influences are considered to have weakened the slopes, and application of the term paraglacial is appropriate. Permafrost aggradation and degradation, seismic activity and fluvial erosion are among processes that may have contributed to failure at certain sites. The failures are significant as potential debris sources during future ice advances, contributing to valley widening and cirque enlargement and, possibly, for acting as sites of cirque initiation. Previously, Skiddaw Group rocks have been regarded as homogeneous and of limited resistance to the weathering and erosion associated with Quaternary glacial, periglacial and fluvial processes. These characteristics and processes have been used to explain the steep smooth slopes and rounded hills that dominate Skiddaw Group terrain. Rock-slope failure has also helped shape this terrain and should be incorporated in future interpretations of landscape development.     

Geomorphic and Climatic Implications of Relict Openwork Block Accumulations Near Thabana-Ntlenyana, Lesotho

Conflicting reports appear in the literature from geomorphic studies describing the colder Late Pleistocene environmental conditions of the Lesotho Highlands in southern Africa. Evidence is given for limited glaciation and/or periglacial conditions, with or without permafrost. An investigation of the distribution, morphometric attributes and surface weathering characteristics of relict openwork block accumulations in the area around Thabana‐Ntlenyana, the highest summit in the range, supports the contention for a relatively arid periglacial environment during the Last Glacial period. A phase of enhanced block production is evident from the concentration of blocks in the upper layer of colluvium. Slope mobility on south‐facing slopes is shown in the blockfield fabrics and the increase in downslope relative age of block surfaces. Block production and slope creep are attributed to depressed temperature conditions and seasonal freeze. Colluvium, within which blocks have been incorporated and superimposed, indicates that slope mantles predate the onset of the colder period and evidence militates against either deep snow cover or localised glaciation of south‐facing slopes.     

基于遥感与SRTM的青藏高原冰缘地貌信息提取方法——以1 ∶ 100万标准分幅拉萨幅(H46)为例

根据模型和分布函数,本文首先依据多年平均气温、地温和SRTM等数据对研究区域冰缘地貌的分布范围进行分别提取,并利用遥感数据和人工解译方式对其进行了修正。在此基础上,采用一定指标,利用SRTM数据对冰缘地貌次级类型(如起伏度、海拔高度和坡度等)进行了提取,从而完成研究区域冰缘地貌信息的提取。研究结果表明:①研究区域冰缘地貌总面积约5.15×10⁴km²,主要分布在研究区域的西北部和西南部,另外在东北部也有少量分布;通过提取,研究区域中最重要的冰缘地貌类型是冰缘作用的中起伏缓极高山,面积约0.82×10⁴km²,分布范围较广。②冰缘地貌的分布与海拔高度、气温和地温等有密切的关系,基于此提取的结果可为冰缘地貌的解译提供一定的参考;由于青藏高原气象站点较少,数据精度较低,自动提取精度受到很大限制,因此进行人工解译修正是非常重要和必不可少的。     

RATES OF HEAVE AND SURFACE ROTATION OF PERIGLACIAL FROST BOILS IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS,CALIFORNIA

The White Mountains of California have a cold semi-arid climate that has led to the development of large areas of periglacial patterned ground. Rates of activity vary widely, and no present activity has been noted below 3600 m. Three distinct scales of patterned ground—having average diameters of 3–5 m, 0.5–1.0 m, and 0.1–0.5 m—exist together in a nested fashion at a favorable location at 3914 m. Vertical heave, horizontal displacement, and surface rotation were investigated on landforms of each scale, to determine rates of activity and the spatial and temporal variation of heave. No movement was detected in the largest landforms, but frost boils located in the centers of the larger sorted polygons were highly active. Rates of heave increased dramatically at the beginning of the thaw season, approaching 3.6 mm per day. Dowels were heaved an average of 16.8 cm over ten months. Disks used as surface markers demonstrated exceptional rotational and radial displacement over a nine-month period; 29% of the markers were overturned. The processes responsible for the observed movement in the White Mountains are discussed in relation to processes affecting other alpine environments.     

SOIL VARIATION ON NORTH AND SOUTH SLOPE CATENAS ON A KAME IN SOUTHEAST WISCONSIN

Soils from two catenas on north-and south-facing slopes of a kame were analyzed to determine the effect of lithology, topography, and microclimate on profile development. In loess on the north-facing slope, where microclimate favored CaCO₃ dissolution and clay translocation, pedogenesis was rapid and an A-E-Bt-C profile developed. In contrast, an A-Bt-C profile developed on the south-facing slope. In gravel where limestone/dolostone dissolution was slow, A-C profiles were found and CaCO₃ was depleted to a ≤ 25-cm depth, 20± cm less than reported for similar Michigan soils. Slopewash and runoff are inferred to have caused silt accumulations and greater infiltration at the base of ≥ 20° slopes, resulting in a thicker solum in foot-and toe-slope positions, whereas on slopes of ≤ 7° infiltration and interflow are the dominant processes, resulting in a thicker solum on the transportational midslope. The differences in soil profile development are attributed to sediment facies changes at 25- to 50-cm depth and resulting groundwater movement. [Key words: soil development, soil spatial variability, kame slope catena, Wisconsin.]     

川西北高原地貌垂直地带性及山地灾害对南水北调西线工程的影响

川西北高原地貌垂直地带性明显:现在流水地貌带海拔高度<3800m;冰缘地貌带为3800⁴200m;冰川地貌带>4200m;相应的主导地貌过程分别是流水侵蚀、冻融侵蚀和冰川侵蚀。川西北高原是大面积构造隆升背景下冻融侵蚀形成的夷平地貌,花岗岩和石灰岩等结晶岩抗寒冻风化能力强,三叠系砂板岩,抗寒冻风化能力差,前者可以形成冰川发育的高山,后者为融冻地貌等发育的丘状起伏的高原面。南水北调西线一期工程主要位于流水地貌带与冰缘地貌带的交界地带,滑坡、崩塌、融冻土流是工程沿线的主要斜坡灾害,规模多为中小型。工程沿线地区泥石流沟数量多、规模小,但流水地貌带内的部分沟谷可能有大型泥石流发生。融冻土流是该区河流泥沙的主要来源,侵蚀产沙对水库淤积的影响应引起重视。冰缘地貌和流水地貌的交错带部位,地貌过程对气候变化的响应相当敏感。     

PERIGLACIAL MODIFICATION OF THE COX TOR—STAPLE TORS AREA OF WESTERN DARTMOOR,ENGLAND

The Pleistocene periglacial legacy to the geomorphology of Dartmoor has been substantial. This paper examines some of these relict features in an area of western Dartmoor. The major features are tors, altiplanation terraces, boulder accumulations in a variety of patterns, and earth mounds. The tors and altiplanation terraces indicate the degree of slope modification created by frost action. The block-fields (clitter) are arranged into stripes, runs and garlands. Narrow stripes start and finish in midslope positions, while boulder runs converge and diverge, apparently at random. The long axis orientation of boulders in stripes is roughly in accord with the direction of the steepest slope, whereas orientation of boulders in blockfields is more variable. The altiplanation terraces and earth mounds occur on Cox Tor, which is composed of diabase. This contrast in rock type seems to explain the lack of similar features on the granite areas. The diabase is very closely jointed and weathers to a silt grade. The earth mounds are thought to be the result of frost thrusting in a silt-based soil. The general conclusion is that many of the landforms of Dartmoor are relicts from periglacial activity during the last glacial period. [Key words: periglaciation, tors, solifluction, Dartmoor.]     

Periglacial and Fluvial Factors Controlling the Sedimentation of Pleistocene Breccia in NW Poland

Breccias were investigated on the terrace of the Toruń‐Eberswalde ice‐marginal valley at Rozwarzyn (NW Poland). Breccia layers include soft‐sediment clasts with diameters between 2 and 256 mm and soft‐sediment megaclasts with diameters from 256 mm to 7 m. The shape of the soft‐sediment clasts and megaclasts (derived from frozen sediments) in the breccia is diverse: from angular and irregular in the case of debris‐flow breccias to slightly rounded and tabular in fluvial breccias. These two types of breccias were developed during the Late Weichselian when the periglacial climate favored extensive lateral erosion by currents of frozen braided channels in the ice‐marginal valley. The dual presence of breccias of fluvial and debris‐flow origin in channel deposits is unique for Quaternary sediments. Zones of breccias existed in the channels where scours and obstacle marks related to megaclasts developed. The study of breccias shed new light on the fluvial processes in ice‐marginal valleys during the Pleistocene and can be considered as diagnostic for fluvio‐periglacial conditions.     

On the genesis of granite pits on top of the Shigujian Peak of the Dayangshan Mountain in Jinyun County, Zhejiang Province

On top of Shigujian Peak (1477 m a.s.l.) of the Dayangshan Mountain in Jinyun County, Zhejiang Province, large amounts of granite pits with diameters ranging from several dozens of centimeters to around one meter and depth from 10 cm to 45 cm are found on rock surface. These pits mainly appear on the NE and SE sides, and their drainage mouths are in the same direction. The identification results through micropolariscope and X-ray fluorescence spectrometer reveal that bedrock of pits is from middle to fine-grained moyite being apt to be weathered and modified. In Dayangshan region the annual mean temperature is 9.2℃ and annual precipitation is over 1700 mm. On the one hand, there always experiences a period of periglacial action with temperature oscillating near 0℃ for 4 months, i.e., from December to March next year. As a consequence, the freezing-thawing cycles may be remarkable to disintegrate the bedrock. On the other hand, the windward slope of Shigujian Peak meets typhoon of over force 10 on the Beaufort scale in summer, therefore, the blowing makes suspending sands or pebbles grind in swirling form. Based on field investigation and periglacial geomorphic theory, the pits on top of Shigujian Peak are attributed to freezing- thawing of periglacial action. Meanwhile, storm and strong wind accelerate the process. Observation shows that both the actions are still undergoing and variant directions of wind are the main cause for making different shapes of the pits. Because the top of Shigujian is 1500 m lower than the present snow line, some scholars considered that “glacial pothole” formed in the Quaternary is hard to work, even though in the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM).