Observed Trends in Extreme Temperature over the Klang Valley,Malaysia

This study investigates the recent extreme temperature trends across 19 stations in the Klang Valley, Malaysia, over the period 2006-16. Fourteen extreme index trends were analyzed using the Mann-Kendall non-parametric test, with Sen’s slope as a magnitude estimator. Generally, the annual daily mean temperature, daily mean maximum temperature, and daily mean minimum temperature in the Klang Valley increased significantly, by 0.07°C yr~(-1), 0.07°C yr~(-1)and 0.08°C yr~(-1),respectively. For the warm temperature indices, the results indicated a significant upward trend for the annual maximum of maximum temperature, by 0.09°C yr~(-1), and the annual maximum of minimum temperature, by 0.11°C yr~(-1). The results for the total number of warm days and warm nights showed significant increasing trends of 5.02 d yr~(-1)and 6.92 d yr~(-1),respectively. For the cold temperature indices, there were upward trends for the annual minimum of maximum temperature,by 0.09°C yr~(-1), and the annual minimum of minimum temperature, by 0.03°C yr~(-1), concurrent with the decreases in the total number cold days (TX10P), with-3.80 d yr~(-1), and cold nights (TN10P), with-4.33 d yr~(-1). The 34°C and 37°C summer days results showed significant upward trends of 4.10 d yr~(-1) and 0.25 d yr~(-1), respectively. Overall, these findings showed upward warming trends in the Klang Valley, with the minimum temperature rate increasing more than that of the maximum temperature, especially in urban areas.     

Trends in carbon sink along the Belt and Road in the future under high emission scenario

Over the past three decades, the drawdown of atmospheric CO₂ in vegetation and soil has fueled net ecosystem production (NEP). Here, a global land-surface model (CABLE) is used to estimate the trend in NEP and its response to atmospheric CO₂, climate change, biological nitrogen (N) fixation, and N deposition under future conditions from 2031 to 2100 in the Belt and Road region. The trend of NEP simulated by CABLE decreases from 0.015 Pg carbon (C) yr^?2 under present conditions (1936–2005) to ?0.023 Pg C yr^?2 under future conditions. In contrast, the trend in NEP of the CMIP6 ensemble changes from 0.014 Pg C yr^?2 under present conditions to ?0.009 Pg C yr^?2 under future conditions. This suggests that the trend in the C sink for the Belt and Road region will likely decline in the future. The significant difference in the NEP trend between present and future conditions is mainly caused by the difference in the impact of climate change on NEP. Considering the responses of soil respiration (RH) or net primary production (NPP) to surface air temperature, the trend in surface air temperature changes from0.01°C yr^?1 under present conditions to 0.05°C yr^?1 under future conditions. CABLE simulates a greater response of RH to surface temperature than that of NPP under future conditions, which causes a decreasing trend in NEP. In addition, the greater decreasing trend in NEP under future conditions indicates that the C–climate–N interaction at the regional scale should be considered. It is important to estimate the direction and magnitude of C sinks under the C neutrality target.摘要目前, 在区域尺度, NEP趋势变化的强度和影响机制还存在很大的不确定性. 针对这一问题, 我们选取了一带一路覆盖的区域为研究对象, 基于全球陆面模式 (CABLE)和第六次国际耦合模式比较计划 (CMIP6), 评估了历史和未来NEP趋势的变化, 分析了影响的机制. 从过去到未来, CABLE结果表明NEP的趋势从 0.015 Pg C yr^?2 减少到 –0.023 Pg C yr^?2; CMIP6结果为从0.014 Pg C yr^?2转变为–0.009 Pg C yr^?2. 气候变化是引起这一变化的主因. 我们的研究结果强调了碳-气候-氮相互作用的重要性, 这对碳中和目标下碳汇潜力的准确估算尤为重要.     

Analysing temporal trends in the Indian Summer Monsoon and its variability at a fine spatial resolution

Temporal trends between 1951 and 2007 in annual Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) precipitation, frequency of severe drought years and onset date of ISM were analysed on a 0.25°?×?0.25° grid cell basis across India using APHRODITE daily gridded precipitation data. Locations which experienced temporal trends of increasing or decreasing inter-annual variation in annual ISM precipitation and onset date of ISM were detected using the non-parametric Mann-Kendall test. A new method of defining local onset of ISM from daily precipitation data was developed to enable countrywide temporal trend analysis of onset date. India was characterised by a heterogeneous spatial distribution in the magnitude of inter-annual variation and location of significant temporal trends in the examined facets of ISM precipitation. A greater extent of the country experienced significant trends (p?<?0.05) of increasing inter-annual variation rather than simple increasing or decreasing trends in annual ISM precipitation and onset date of ISM. Field significance tests showed grid cells reporting significant trends were significant (p?<?0.05) at the global or field level (except trends of increasing, i.e. later, ISM onset date). This research provides finer spatial detail regarding trends and variation in annual ISM precipitation, severe drought years and onset date of ISM complementing recent studies on trends in extreme precipitation events over India to produce a comprehensive overview of recent behaviour of ISM precipitation. These findings will benefit water managers charged with managing water resources sustainably at a fine spatial scale (the watershed or basin level).     

Discrete wavelet transform-based investigation into the variability of standardized precipitation index in Northwest China during 1960–2014

This study analyses spatio-temporal trends in precipitation, temperature, and river discharge in the northeast of Iran during recent decades (1953–2013). The Pettitt, SNHT, Buishand, Box-Pierce, Ljung-Box, and McLeod-Li methods were applied to examine homogeneity in time series studied. The nonparametric Mann-Kendall and Sen’s slope estimator tests were used to detect possible significant (p < 0.05) temporal trends in hydrometeorological time series and their magnitude, respectively. For time series with autocorrelation, the trend-free pre-whitening (TFPW) method was used to determine significant trends. To explore spatial distributions of trends, their magnitudes were interpolated by the inverse distance whitening (IDW) method. Trend analysis shows that for daily, monthly, and annual precipitation time series, 12.5, 19, and 12.5 % of the stations revealed significant increasing trends, respectively. For mean temperature, warming trends were found at 38, 23, and 31 % of the stations on daily, monthly, and annual timescales, in turn. Daily and monthly river discharge decreased at 80 and 40 % of the stations. Overall, these results indicate significant increases in precipitation and temperature but decreases in river discharge during recent decades. Hence, it can be concluded that decreasing trends in river discharge time series over the northeast of Iran during 1953–2013 are in response to warming temperatures, which increase the rate of evapotranspiration. Differences between the results of our comprehensive large-scale study and those of previous researches confirm the necessity for more model-based local studies on climatic and environmental changes across the northeast of Iran.     

Increases of wet deposition at remote sites in Japan from 1991 to 2009

Temporal trends in wet deposition of major ions were explored at nationwide remote sites in Japan from April 1991 to March 2009 by using the seasonal Kendall slope estimator and the nonparametric seasonal Kendall test. For the trend analysis, datasets from eight remote sites (Rishiri, Echizenmisaki, Oki, Ogasawara, Shionomisaki, Goto, Yakushima, and Amami) were selected from the Japanese Acid Deposition Survey (JADS) conducted by the Ministry of the Environment. Deposition of H⁺ has been increasing at remote sites in Japan on a national scale. Significant (p????0.05) increases in H⁺ deposition were detected with changes of +3?C+9?%?year^?1 at seven sites, while insignificant increases were observed at one site. Depositions of non-sea salt (nss)-SO ₄ ^2? and NO ₃ ^? significantly increased at four and six sites, respectively, with changes of +1?C+3?%?year^?1. Significant increases in precipitation at four sites would have contributed to the increase in depositions of H⁺, nss-SO ₄ ^2? , and NO ₃ ^? . The emission trends of SO₂ and NO_x did not corresponded to the deposition trends of nss-SO ₄ ^2? and NO ₃ ^? . The different trends indicated that temporal variation of precipitation amount trend dominated the deposition trends.     

Evaluating persistence and identifying trends and abrupt changes in monthly and annual rainfalls of a semi-arid region in Western India

In this study, 43-year (1965–2007) monthly and annual rainfall time series of ten rainfall stations in a semi-arid region of western India are analyzed by adopting three tests for testing normality and by applying autoregressive technique for exploring persistence. Gradual trends are identified by three tests, and their magnitudes are assessed by the Sen’s slope estimator. Also, abrupt changes are detected by using four tests and they are further confirmed by two tests. Box-whisker plots revealed that the rainfalls of June and September are right skewed for all the stations. The annual rainfalls of Bhinder, Dhariawad, and Gogunda stations are found considerably right skewed. The normality tests indicated that the rainfall of July does not deviate from the normal distribution at all the stations. However, the annual rainfall is found non-normal at five stations. The monthly rainfalls of June, July, and August have persistence respectively at three (Mavli, Salumber, and Sarada), two (Kherwara and Sarada), and one (Mavli) stations, whereas the annual rainfall has persistence at Girwa and Mavli stations. Significantly increasing trend is detected at Mavli in the rainfall of July and in the annual rainfall (p value?>?0.05), while the negative trend in August rainfall at Dhariawad is found significant (p value?>?0.10). This study revealed that the presence of serial correlation does not affect the performance of the Mann-Kendall test. Mean values of trend magnitudes for the rainfalls of June, July, August, and September are 0.3, 0.8, ?0.4, and 0.4 mm year^?1, respectively, and the overall mean value for the annual rainfall is 0.9 mm year^?1. It is found that the standard normal homogeneity test and the Pettitt test are biased towards the end of the series to locate a change point. Conversely, the Bayesian test has a tendency to look for a change point in the beginning of time series. Confirmed abrupt changes in the rainfall time series are found in the year 2003 (Bhinder) in June; years 1974 (Mavli) and 1989 (Dhariawad and Salumber) in July; years 1972 (Sarada), 1990 (Dhariawad), and 2003 (Mavli) in August; years 1977 (Dhariawad), 1991 (Sarada), and 2004 (Kotra) in September; and in the year 1972 (Mavli and Sarada stations) in the annual series. It is emphasized that the significantly increasing trend of rainfall may have linkages with climate change and/or variability. Finally, this study recommends use of multiple statistical tests for analyzing hydrologic time series in order to ensure reliable decisions.     

近60年中国日降水量分区及气候特征

根据中国国家级地面气象站均一化降水数据集,使用1956~2015年512个台站的日降水量资料,通过旋转经验正交函数（REOF）得到七个分区。比较了各分区平均日降水量的年内变化和多年倾向率差异:我国偏南分区的小雨日数减少,大雨、暴雨日数、日降水量的区域年均值增加;偏北分区的小雨、大雨、暴雨日数、降水量年均值为递减;长江中下游区（东北区）日降水量、小雨日数、暴雨日数的年均值的近60年倾向率分别是0.0071 mm a-1（-0.0010 mm a-1）、-0.0729 d a-1（-0.0615 d a-1）、0.0132 d a-1（-0.0007 d a-1）。100°E以西地区:小雨、中雨日数在增加,无雨日数显著减少,日降水量的年均值呈递增特点。通过自相关函数和小波功率谱估计,揭示了七个分区的日降水量年均值普遍存在2~4 a周期震荡。使用NCEP/NCAR月均再分析资料,以区域日降水量年均值为指数得到500 hPa、700 hPa、850 hPa回归风系数场、旱涝年整场水汽通量和水汽通量散度差异场相结合分析,结果表明:"东高西低,南高北低"环流型和区域降水有密切关系,水汽差异场是上述环流特点的反映。     

Historical Trend in River Ice Thickness and Coherence in Hydroclimatological Trends in Maine

We analyzed long-term records of ice thickness on the Piscataquis River in central Maine and air temperature in Maine to determine whether there were temporal trends that were associated with climate warming. The trend in ice thickness was compared and correlated with regional time series of winter air temperature, heating degree days (HDD), date of river ice-out, seasonal center-of-volume date (SCVD) (date on which half of the stream runoff volume during the period 1 Jan. to 31 May has occurred), water temperature, and lake ice-out date. All of these variables except lake ice-out date showed significant temporal trends during the 20th century. Average ice thickness around 28 February decreased by about 23 cm from 1912 to 2001. Over the period 1900 to 1999, winter air temperature increased by 1.7 °C and HDD decreased by about 7.5%.Final ice-out date on the Piscataquis River occurred earlier (advanced), by 0.21 days yr^–1 over the period 1931 to 2002, and the SCVD advancedby 0.11 days yr^–1 over the period 1903 to 2001. Ice thickness was significantly correlated (P-value <0.01) with winter air temperature, HDD, river ice-out, and SCVD. These systematic temporal trends in multiple hydrologic indicator variables indicate a coherent response to climate forcing.     

Recent Climate Change at the Upper Danube—A temporal and spatial analysis of temperature and precipitation time series

The following study investigates temperature and precipitation trends in instrumental time series between 1960 and 2006 at 88 meteorological stations located in the Upper Danube Basin. Time series were tested for inhomogeneities with several common homogeneity tests, trend magnitudes of annual and seasonal time series were calculated by least square fitting and the significance of trend values was checked and quantified by the Mann-Kendall test. The results confirm a particularly strong recent Climate Change in the investigation area. Increasing temperature trends show remarkably high trend values up to 0.8°C/decade in the summer season. The trends are highly significant for all investigated summer, spring and annual time series. Winter and spring temperature trends show consistently positive trend values as well even though some time series show no significance at all and the calculated trend values are smaller. Autumn temperature trends are mostly non-significant with low values (up to 0.3°C/decade) and several negative trends. Most of the highest trend values can be found in lower altitudes whereas stations situated in alpine regions tend to show low trend magnitudes and often exhibit non-significant results. Precipitation time series show positive as well as negative trends in the annual and seasonal analysis. At most stations a precipitation decrease in summer and autumn and an increase in winter was observed during the last 47?years whereas the spring and mean annual precipitation exhibits no change at all. But most time series are not conclusive since they show predominantly no significance and they often exhibit only low trend values.     

Climate variability and change in Bulgaria during the 20th century

Summary Climate data used for climate variability and change analyses, must be homogeneous, to be accurate. The data currently used in the Météo-France homogenization procedure, which does not require computation of regional reference series, was applied to precipitation and average air temperature series in Bulgaria. The Caussinus-Mestre method, with a double-step procedure, was used to detect multiple breaks and outliers in the long-term series of precipitation and average air temperature. A two factor linear model was applied for break correction. The homogenization procedure was run till all or most break risk was gone. Analysis of climate variability and change in Bulgaria during the 20^th century was done on already homogenized precipitation and average air temperature series. The statistical significance of the trends obtained was evaluated by the coefficient of Spearman rank correlation. The variations of annual precipitation in Bulgaria showed an overall decrease. The country has experienced several drought episodes during the 20^th century, most notably in the 1940s and 1980s. Seasonal precipitation in spring shows a positive trend at most weather stations across the country. The trend for summer and autumn precipitation is negative. A statistically significant increasing trend of winter precipitation in north Bulgaria was detected. No significant warming trend in the country was found during the last century inspite of the warming observed during the last two decades. Summer in Bulgaria tends to be warmer from the beginning of the 1980s. There is a statistically significant increasing trend of average air temperature during the winter season at the weather stations near the Danube river (north Bulgaria) during the periods 1901–2000 and 1931–2000.     

Sea level responses to climatic variability and change in northern British Columbia

Abstract

Sea level responses to climatic variability (CV) and change (CC) signals at multiple temporal scales (interdecadal to monthly) are statistically examined using long‐term water level records from Prince Rupert (PR) on the north coast of British Columbia. Analysis of observed sea level data from PR, the longest available record in the region, indicates an annual average mean sea level (MSL) trend of +1.4±0.6 mm yr^?1 for the period (1939–2003), as opposed to the longer term trend of 1±0.4 mm yr^?1 (1909–2003). This suggests a possible acceleration in MSL trends during the latter half of the twentieth century. According to the results of this study, the causes behind this acceleration can be attributed not only to the effects of global warming but also to cyclic climate variability patterns such as the strong positive Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) phase that has been present since the mid‐1970s. The linear regression model based on highest sea levels (MAXSL) of each calendar year showed a trend exceeding twice that (3.4 mm yr^?1) of MSL. Previous work shows that the influence of vertical crustal motions on relative sea level are negligible at PR.

Relations between sea levels and known CV indices (e.g., the Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI), PDO, Northern Oscillation Index (NOI), and Aleutian Low Pressure Index (ALPI)) are explored to identify potential controls of CV phenomena (e.g., the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), PDO) on regional MSL and MAXSL. Linear and non‐linear statistical methods including correlation analyses, multiple regression, Cumulative Sum (CumSum) analysis, and Superposed Epoch Analysis (SEA) are used. Results suggest that ENSO forcing (as shown by the MEI and NOI indices) exerts significant influence on winter sea level fluctuations, while the PDO dominates summer sea level variability. The observational evidence at PR also shows that, during the period 1939–2003, these cyclic shorter temporal scale sea level fluctuations in response to CV were significantly greater than the longer term sea‐level rise trend by as much as an order of magnitude and with trends over twice that of MSL. Such extreme sea level fluctuations related to CV events should be the immediate priority for the development of coastal adaptation strategies, as they are superimposed on long‐term MSL trends, resulting in greater hazard than longer term MSL rise trends alone.     

Temperature trends in the skin/surface, mid-troposphere and low stratosphere near Korea from satellite and ground measurements

Various types of satellite (AIRS/AMSU, MODIS) and ground measurements are used to analyze temperature trends in the four vertical layers (skin/surface, mid-troposphere, and low stratosphere) around the Korean Peninsula (123–132°E, 33–44°N) during the period from September 2002 to August 2010. The ground-based observations include 72 Surface Meteorological Stations (SMSs), 6 radiosonde stations (RAOBs), 457 Automatic Weather Stations (AWSs) over the land, and 5 buoy stations over the ocean. A strong warming (0.052 K yr^?1) at the surface, and a weak warming (0.004～0.010 K yr^?1) in the mid-troposphere and low stratosphere have been found from satellite data, leading to an unstable atmospheric layer. The AIRS/AMSU warming trend over the ocean surface around the Korean Peninsula is about 2.5 times greater than that over the land surface. The ground measurements from both SMS and AWS over the land surface of South Korea also show a warming of 0.043～0.082 K yr^?1, consistent with the satellite observations. The correlation average (r = 0.80) between MODIS skin temperature and ground measurement is significant. The correlations between AMSU and RAOB are very high (0.91～0.95) in the anomaly time series, calculated from the spatial averages of monthly mean temperature values. However, the warming found in the AMSU data is stronger than that from the RAOB at the surface. The opposite feature is present above the mid-troposphere, indicating that there is a systematic difference. Warming phenomena (0.012～0.078 K yr^?1) are observed from all three data sets (SMS, AWS, MODIS), which have been corroborated by the coincident measurements at five ground stations. However, it should also be noted that the observed trends are subject to large uncertainty as the corresponding 95% confidence intervals tend to be larger than the observed signals due to large thermal variability and the relatively short periods of the satellitebased temperature records. The EOF analysis of monthly mean temperature anomalies indicates that the tropospheric temperature variability near Korea is primarily linked to the Arctic Oscillation (AO), and secondarily to ENSO (El Niño and Southern Oscillation). However, the low stratospheric temperature variability is mainly associated with Southern Oscillation and then additionally with Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO). Uncertainties from the different spatial resolutions between satellite data are discussed in the trends.     

A 400-year tree-ring record of the Puelo River summer–fall streamflow in the Valdivian Rainforest eco-region, Chile

The Puelo River is a watershed shared between Chile and Argentina with a mean annual streamflow of 644 m³ s^?1. It has a high ecologic and economic importance, including introduced farmed salmon, tourism, sports fishing and projected hydroelectricity. Using Austrocedrus chilensis and Pilgerodendron uviferum tree-ring records we reconstructed summer–fall (December–May) Puelo River streamflow, which is the first of such reconstructions developed in the Pacific domain of South America. The reconstruction goes back to 1599 and has an adjusted r ² of 0.42. Spectral analysis of the reconstructed streamflow shows a dominant 84-year cycle which explains 25.1% of the total temporal variability. The Puelo River summer–fall streamflow shows a significant correlation (P?>?0.95, 1943–2002) with hydrological records throughout a vast geographic range within the Valdivian eco-region (35 to 46°S). Seasonal Puelo River interannual streamflow variability is related to large-scale oceanic and atmospheric circulation features. Summer–fall streamflows showed a significant negative correlation with the Antarctic Oscillation (AAO), whereas winter–spring anomalies appear to be positively connected with sea surface temperature variations in the tropical Pacific. In general, above- and below-average discharges in winter–spring are related to El Niño and La Niña events, respectively. The temporal patterns of the observed and reconstructed records of the Puelo River streamflow show a general decreasing trend in the 1943–1999 period. Projected circulation changes for the next decades in the Southern Hemisphere would decrease summer–fall Puelo River streamflows with significant impacts on salmon production, tourism and hydropower generation.     

Analysis of changes in the relationship between precipitation and streamflow in the Yiluo River, China

The Yiluo River is the largest tributary of the middle and lower Yellow River below the Sanmenxia Dam. Hydro-climatic variables have changed in the Yiluo River during the last half century. In this study, the trends in the annual precipitation and streamflow were analyzed in the Yiluo River during 1960–2006. The results indicated that both the annual precipitation and streamflow decreased significantly (P?<?0.05) from 1960 to 2006. Pettitt’s test shows that there was a change point for annual streamflow series around the year 1986 (P?<?0.05), while there was no change point identified for the annual precipitation series from 1960 to 2006. Annual streamflow decreased more significantly than annual precipitation since 1986. The relationship between the annual precipitation and streamflow presented a non-stationary state since 1986. This non-stationary relationship was mainly influenced by human activities. The average annual amount of water diversion from the Yiluo River increased significantly since the mid-1980s, accounting for 31.3 % of the total streamflow decrease from 1986 to 2006. In addition, land use/cover change (LUCC) contributed to 27.1–29.8 % of the decrease in streamflow. Human activities, including water diversion and LUCC, together contributed to 58.4–61.1 % of the decrease in streamflow and led to the non-stationary relationship between the annual precipitation and streamflow from 1986 to 2006. This study detected the changes in the precipitation–streamflow relationship and investigated the possible causes in the Yiluo River, which will be helpful for the understanding of the changes in streamflow in the Yellow River Basin.     

Trends in dry spells across Catalonia (NE Spain) during the second half of the 20th century

Summary A spatiotemporal trend analysis of different magnitudes related to the number and length of the dry spells in Catalonia (NE Spain) has been conducted based on daily rainfall records taken from 40 rain gauges during the second half of the 20^th century. Dry spells have been computed for threshold levels of 0.1, 1, 5 and 10 mm/day at annual and semi-annual scales. The winter half-year is defined from October to March and the summer half-year from April to September. The magnitudes considered are the number, the maximum length and the mean length of the dry spells for every year and half-year. The spatial patterns of the average values of these magnitudes at the annual scale show a greater similarity with those of the summer half-year than with those of the winter half-year. A S–N or SW–NE gradient of the number of dry spells appears during the summer half-year for every threshold level. Trends of the analysed magnitudes are derived from linear regression and local statistical significances at the 95% confidence level are established using the Mann-Kendall test. Field significant trends are investigated by means of Monte Carlo simulations. The most relevant finding is that the number of dry spells per year depicts significant trends for the annual and winter-half series, with an overall decreasing trend for 5 and 10 mm/day thresholds. These observed trends are in agreement with changes in North Atlantic cyclone tracks and in Mediterranean Low dynamics, due to increasing greenhouse gas concentrations.     

Estimate of Hydrofluorocarbon Emissions for 2012–16 in the Yangtze River Delta,China

Hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs) have been widely used in China as substitutes for ozone-depleting substances,the production and use of which are being phased out under the Montreal Protocol.China is a major consumer of HFCs around the world,with its HFC emissions in CO_2-equivalent contributing to about 18% of the global emissions for the period2012-16.Three methods are widely used to estimate the emissions of HFCs-namely,the bottom-up method,top-down method and tracer ratio method.In this study,the tracer ratio method was adopted to estimate HFC emissions in the Yangtze River Delta(YRD),using CO as a tracer.The YRD region might make a significant contribution to Chinese totals owing to its rapid economic growth.Weekly flask measurements for ten HFCs(HFC-23,HFC-32,HFC-125,HFC-134 a,HFC-143 a,HFC-152 a,HFC-227 ea,HFC-236 fa,HFC-245 fa and HFC-365 mfc) were conducted at Lin'an Regional Background Station in the YRD over the period 2012-16,and the HFC emissions were 2.4±1.4 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-23,2.8±1.2 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-32,2.2±1.2 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-125,4.8±4.8 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-134 a,0.9±0.6 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-152 a,0.3±0.3 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-227 ea and 0.3±0.2 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-245 fa.The YRD total HFC emissions reached 53 Gg CO_2-e yr~(-1),contributing 34% of the national total.The per capita HFC CO_2-equivalent emissions rate was 240 kg yr-1,while the values of per unit area emissions and per million GDP emissions reached 150 Mg km~(-2)yr~(-1) and 3500 kg yr~(-1)(million CNY GDP)-1,which were much higher than national or global levels.     

NDVI-based increase in growth of temperate grasslands and its responses to climate changes in China

This study analyzes the temporal change of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for temperate grasslands in China and its correlation with climatic variables over the period of 1982–1999. Average NDVI of the study area increased at rates of 0.5% yr⁻¹ for the growing season (April–October), 0.61% yr⁻¹ for spring (April and May), 0.49% yr⁻¹ for summer (June–August), and 0.6% yr⁻¹ for autumn (September and October) over the study period. The humped-shape pattern between coefficient of correlation (R) of the growing season NDVI to precipitation and growing season precipitation documents various responses of grassland growth to changing precipitation, while the decreased R values of NDVI to temperature with increase of temperature implies that increased temperature declines sensitivity of plant growth to changing temperature. The results also suggest that the NDVI trends induced by climate changes varied between different vegetation types and seasons.     

1960—2008年淮河流域极端降水演变特征

采用地理空间统计、时间序列分析和趋势诊断等方法,研究1960—2008年淮河流域极端降水时空演变特征:流域大部分地区全年及四季的极端强降水量、降水强度、强降雨日数无明显变化趋势;≥15 d的持续无降水事件发生次数由南向北递增,平均每年2~5次,冬季最多、夏季最少;≥5 d的持续降水事件由东北向西南递增,平均每年1~8次,潢川—正阳—郑州一线的西北部秋季最多,其他地区夏季最多;40%的站点持续无降水事件有明显增多趋势,气候倾向率为0.22~0.60次/a,且大多在1970s发生气候突变;30%的站点持续降水事件有明显减少趋势,气候倾向率为-0.24~-0.70次/a,普遍无气候突变;持续无降水(降水)事件与年降水总量没有明显的联系。     

Recent trends of mean maximum and minimum air temperatures in the western half of Iran

In this study, the trends of the annual, seasonal and monthly maximum (T _max) and minimum (T _min) air temperatures time series were investigated for 20 stations in the western half of Iran during 1966?C2005. Three statistical tests including Mann?CKendall, Sen??s slope estimator and linear regression were used for the analysis. The annual T _max and T _min series showed a positive trend in 85% of the stations and a negative trend in 15% of the stations in the study region. The highest increase of T _max and T _min values were obtained over Kermanshah and Ahwaz at the rates of (+)0.597°C/decade and (+)0.911°C/decade, respectively. On the seasonal scale, the strongest increasing trends were identified in T _max and T _min data in summer. The highest numbers of stations with positive significant trends occurred in the monthly T _max and T _min series in August. In contrast, the lowest numbers of stations with significant positive trends were observed between November and March. Overall, the results showed similar increasing trends for the study variables, although T _min generally increased at a higher rate than T _max in the study period.     

Variability of extreme events in the Colombian Pacific and Caribbean catchment basins

This paper analyses the behavior of extreme events of surface precipitation and temperature inside the Pacific and Caribbean Catchment Basins in Colombia using several datasets such as observations, reconstructed data, NCEP-NCAR and ERA-40 reanalyses and data from the regional model REMO. We use an extreme value method that selects the time series excesses over a nonstationary threshold and adjusts them to a generalized Pareto distribution. The goodness of fit is evaluated through a test that includes the Cramer–von Mises, Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Anderson–Darling statistics and the p values generated by parametric bootstrap resampling. The test not only evaluates the goodness of fit but also the threshold choice. The parameters are presented in maps that allow recognition of the features of the extreme behaviour inside the catchment basins, and differences and similarities between them. Maps of return periods for the maximum extreme events are also presented. A strong influence of the El Niño–Southern oscillation on the extreme events of both temperature and precipitation is found in the two catchment basins.