Further observations of 8-μm polar brightenings of Jupiter

North to south scans of Jupiter at 7.8-μm wavelength in early 1981 confirm polar brightening events that correlate with LCM_III, such that a polar limb is bright when the corresponding magnetic pole is tilted eartward. The correlation with magnetic features of the planet suggests that the energy source for the brightenings is magnetospheric particles incident upon the polar regions of the atmosphere. The northern polar events are more prominent and more regular than the southern ones. The polar emission may be indirectly related to the ultraviolet absorber observed near the poles by Voyager 2.     

Variability of phosphine on Jupiter from 5-μm spectroscopy

Spectra of Jupiter recorded in the 1900- to 2300-cm^?1 range at the IRTF in Hawaii, July 1982, provide tentative evidence for variability of the Jovian atmosphere between zones and belts. It is concluded from analysis of the ν₁and ν₃ bands of PH₃ that there is a possible enhancement of the PH₃/H₂ ratio in the belts when compared to the zones. There is an apparent reduction of the PH₃ abundance between the IRIS Voyager 1 determinations and these spectra, implying temporal or spatial variability of PH₃ on Jupiter. Interpretation of this variability in the troposphere could involve both dynamical and thermochemical processes.     

Quasi-satellites of Jupiter

Two asteroids 2001 QQ199 and 2004 AE9 and two comets P/LINEAR-Catalina and P/LINEAR are found to be quasi-satellites of Jupiter at present time. The Tisserand parameters of these four bodies lie between 2.3 and 2.5, which means two asteroids might be Jupiter family comets and will show a cometary’s activity in the near future.     

Thunderstorms on Jupiter

The presence of a considerable acetylene concentration on Jupiter, despite the fast rate of its photolytic hydrogenation, provides strong evidence for the operation of frequent and powerful thunderstorms in the Jovian atmosphere. Whereas acetylene regeneration can occur only during thunderstorms, the photolytically destroyed ammonia can be regenerated both in thunderstorms and in the low and hot atmospheric levels. A rate of Earthlike lightning strokes 10⁴ times larger than on Earth is inferred from the calculated rate of acetylene's photolytic destruction. The rate of acetylene production by thunder shock waves and the products obtained from its photolytic hydrogenation can account for the large ethane concentration and the absence of ethylene. The yellow-brown acetylene polymer and the ruby-red polymers, obtained from thunder-produced hydrogen cyanide or cyanogen with ammonia, are likely contributor to the Jovian coloration.     

Spectrophotometry of Jupiter

Spectrophotometric maps of Jupiter were made between 24 and 27(UT) November 1974 on the McMath Solar Telescope at Kitt Peak National Observatory. We report a comparison between observed scaled reflectivities of the Jovian North Tropical Zone and the North Equatorial Belt at System II longitudes between 195 and 205 degrees. The belt/zone reflectivity ratios between 430 and 740nm are related to the optical transmission curves of the organic and/or sulfur polymers synthesized by Khare and Sagan in a simulated Jovian atmosphere.     

2.7- to 4.1-μm spectrophotometry of icy satellites of Saturn and Jupiter

We present spectrophotometry in the 27–41 μm spectral region for icy satellites of Saturn (Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Iapetus, and Hyperion) and Jupiter (Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto). The 3.6-μm reflectance peak characteristic of fine-grained water ice is observed prominently on the satellites of Saturn, faintly on the leading side of Europa, and not all on Ganymede, Callisto, or the dark side of Iapetus. The spectral reflectances of these icy satellites may be affected by their equilibrium surface temperatures and magnetospheric effects.     

The planet Jupiter

Summary. The exploration of Jupiter, the closest and biggest giant planet, has provided key information about the origin and evolution of the outer Solar system. Our knowledge has strongly benefited from the Voyager and Galileo space missions. We now have a good understanding of Jupiter's thermal structure, chemical composition and magnetospheric environment. There is still debate about the nature of the heating source responsible for the high thermospheric temperatures (precipitating particles and/or gravity waves). The measurement of elemental abundance ratios (C/H, N/H, S/H) gives strong support to the “nucleation” formation model, according to which giant planets formed from the accretion of an initial core and the collapse of the surrounding gaseous protosolar nebula. The D/H and He/He ratios are found to be representative of their protosolar value. The helium abundance, in contrast, appears to be slightly depleted in the outer envelope with respect to the protosolar value; this departure is interpreted as an evolutionary effect, due to the condensation of helium droplets in the liquid hydrogen ocean inside Jupiter's interior. The cloud structure of Jupiter, characterized by the belt-zone system, is globally understood; also present are specific features like regions of strong infrared radiation (“hot spots”), colder regions (“white ovals”) and the Great Red Spot (GRS). Clouds were surprisingly absent at the hot spot corresponding to the Galileo probe entry site, and the water abundance measured there was strongly depleted with respect to the solar O/H value. This probably implies that hot spots are dry, cloud-free regions of subsidence, while “normal” air, rich in condensibles, is transported upward by convective motions. As a result, the Jovian meteorology, still based on Halley-type cells, seems to be much more complex than a simple zone-belt system. The nature of the GRS, a giant anticyclonic storm, colder and higher than its environment, has been confirmed by the Galileo observations, but its internal structure appears to be very complex. Strong winds, probably driven by the Jovian internal source, were measured at deep tropospheric levels. The troposphere might be statically stable at pressures higher than 18 bars, but the extent of this putative radiative layer is still unknown. Received 23 November 1998     

Creation,detection, and evolution of Jupiter Trojan families

An investigation is carried out looking at correlations between the orbital elements of collisional targets and projectiles, estimating the number of interlopers in Trojan collisional families, and at the possibility of determining the ages of the Jupiter Trojan families by orbital integration. Real Trojans are integrated and close encounters are recorded in order to evaluate collisional circumstances between Trojans. Fictitious collisional families are created and integrated for 10 MJyr (million Julian years) forward in time and back again to the time of the collision in order to check the performance of the integrator, and the behaviour of the fictitious collisional fragments. Proper elements are calculated for the detection of family clustering using the hierarchically clustering method. This method presents little difficulty finding fictitious families in the Trojan swarms even in areas with densely populated backgrounds. However, even when the background is relatively sparse in objects, several interlopers can be connected to the family at velocity differences below 100 m s^–1. On the other hand, in densely populated backgrounds the contamination of interlopers should be less than 30%. Providing gravity is the only significant force acting on the Trojans and resonance effects are weak, the shape the collision fragments create in the proper element space are preserved on the GJyr scale, and collisions can be tracked with orbital integrations for ages of at least 100 MJyr. However, the shape of artificial families does not correspond to suggested real families. This points to the need of including non‐gravitational forces such as the Yarkovsky effect in order to simulate the family evolution. As a consequence age determination by orbital integration might be severely restricted and previous investigations involving long term orbital integrations might have tobe recalculated (© 2011 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Far-infrared spectral observations of Venus,Mars, and Jupiter

Spectra of Venus, Mars, and Jupiter between 45 and 115 μm have been obtained at a resolving power of ～10, observing from the NASA Lear Jet at an altitude of 13.7 km. The results are calibrated with lunar observations, and show Mars and Venus to have relatively constant brightness temperatures over this wavelength region, with Venus appearing somewhat warmer at longer wavelengths. The brightness temperature of Jupiter decreases slightly toward longer wavelengths.     

Lightning activity on Jupiter

Photographic observations of the nightside of Jupiter by the Voyager 1 spacecraft show the presence of extensive lightning activity. Detection of whistlers by the plasma wave analyzer confirms the optical observations and implies that many flashes were not recorded by the Voyager camera because the intensity of the flashes was below the threshold sensitivity of the camera. Measurements of the optical energy radiated per flash indicate that the observed flashes had energies similar to that for terrestrial superbolts. The best estimate of the lightning energy dissipation rate of 0.4 × 10^?3 W/m² was derived from a consideration of the optical and radiofrequency measurements. The ratio of the energy dissipated by lightning compared to the convective energy flux is estimated to be between 0.27 × 10^?4 and 0.5 × 10^?4. The terrestrial value is 1 × 10^?4.     

Colour changes on Jupiter

An analysis of four-colour photographic images of Jupiter taken during 1970–1974 is presented. It is shown that major global and hemispheric changes in colour—mainly in the blue— occurred over this period.     

Infrared scans of Jupiter

We present spatial scans at eight wavelengths between 7.8 and 24 μm along Jupiter's meridian and along the Equatorial Zone, the North Equatorial Belt, and the South Tropical Zone. Some features of these scans are differences in brightness temperatures between the Great Red Spot and the surrounding South Tropical Zone, a higher temperature at high northern latitudes than high southern latitudes, equal or possibly higher temperatures of zones than belts at 7.8 μm in contrast to higher temperatures of belts at other observed wavelengths, very strong limb darkening at 8.9 μm possibly due to a large scale height or a nonuniform distribution of solid NH₃ particles, and inhomogenities within belts and zones.     

Limb-darkening scans of Jupiter

An area scanning photometer has been used to obtain photometrically calibrated limb-darkening scans of Jupiter at four wavelengths: 6190, 6300, 7250, and 8200 Å. The first and third of these correspond to methane absorptions and the second and fourth to continuum regions near the 4-0 and 3-0 H₂ quadrupole bands, respectively. Single-scattering albedos have been calculated for several areas on the planet at all four wavelengths assuming a semi-infinite, homogeneous, isotropically scattering atmosphere. The values obtained at the wavelengths of the quadrupole bands range from 0.98 over the NEB to ? 0.99 over the NTrZ and the bright band in the southern hemisphere. The single-scattering albedo values are used to show that the 5μm-emitting equatorial regions of the planet may be relatively clear and the tropical regions relatively cloudy.     

Jupiter at five microns

Maps of Jupiter at 5 um provide detailed information about the complex of emission features at this wavelength. Previous indications of a correlation between infrared sources and visual features are confirmed with a few significant exceptions. The behavior of Jupiter at 5 um is compared with that of other bodies in the outer solar system. Recent observations indicate emission features on Jupiter at other infrared wavelengths.     

Spectra of simulated lightning on Venus,Jupiter, and Titan

Laser-induced plasmas in various gas mixtures were used to simulate lightning in other planetary atmospheres. This method of simulation has the advantage of producing short-duration, high-temperature plasmas free from electrode contamination. The laser-induced plasma discharges in air are shown to accurately simulate terrestrial lightning and can be expected to simulate lightning spectra in other planetary atmospheres. Spectra from 240 to 880 nm are presented for simulated lightning in the atmospheres of Venus, Earth, Jupiter, and Titan. The spectra of lightning on the other giant planets are expected to be similar to that of Jupiter because the atmospheres of these planets are composed mainly of hydrogen and helium. The spectra of Venus and Titan show substantial amounts of radiation due to the presence of carbon atoms and ions and show CN Violet radiation. Although small amounts of CH₄ and NH₃ are present in the Jovian atmosphere, only emission from hydrogen and helium is observed. Most differences in the spectra can be understood in terms of the elemental ratios of the gas mixtures. Consequently, observations of the spectra of lightning on other planets should provide in situ estimates of the atmospheric and aerosol composition in the cloud layers in which lightning is occuring. In particular, the detection of inert gases such as helium should be possible and the relative abundance of these gases compared to major constituents might be determined.     

Ammonia photolysis on Jupiter

Ammonia photolysis under simulated Jovian conditions indicates that the photochemical reaction would rapidly convert all the ammonia of Jupiter to nitrogen even in a large excess of hydrogen. It is suggested that ammonia is observed because the planet's atmosphere is deep and hot and/or because electrical discharge phenomena are important.     

Accretion of the gaseous envelope of Jupiter around a 5-10 Earth-mass core

New numerical simulations of the formation and evolution of Jupiter are presented. The formation model assumes that first a solid core of several M_⊕ accretes from the planetesimals in the protoplanetary disk, and then the core captures a massive gaseous envelope from the protoplanetary disk. Earlier studies of the core accretion-gas capture model [Pollack, J.B., Hubickyj, O., Bodenheimer, P., Lissauer, J.J., Podolak, M., Greenzweig, Y., 1996. Icarus 124, 62-85] demonstrated that it was possible for Jupiter to accrete with a solid core of 10-30 M_⊕ in a total formation time comparable to the observed lifetime of protoplanetary disks. Recent interior models of Jupiter and Saturn that agree with all observational constraints suggest that Jupiter's core mass is 0-11 M_⊕ and Saturn's is 9-22 M_⊕ [Saumon, G., Guillot, T., 2004. Astrophys. J. 609, 1170-1180]. We have computed simulations of the growth of Jupiter using various values for the opacity produced by grains in the protoplanet's atmosphere and for the initial planetesimal surface density, σinit,Z, in the protoplanetary disk. We also explore the implications of halting the solid accretion at selected core mass values during the protoplanet's growth. Halting planetesimal accretion at low core mass simulates the presence of a competing embryo, and decreasing the atmospheric opacity due to grains emulates the settling and coagulation of grains within the protoplanet's atmosphere. We examine the effects of adjusting these parameters to determine whether or not gas runaway can occur for small mass cores on a reasonable timescale. We compute four series of simulations with the latest version of our code, which contains updated equation of state and opacity tables as well as other improvements. Each series consists of a run without a cutoff in planetesimal accretion, plus up to three runs with a cutoff at a particular core mass. The first series of runs is computed with an atmospheric opacity due to grains (hereafter referred to as ‘grain opacity’) that is 2% of the interstellar value and . Cutoff runs are computed for core masses of 10, 5, and 3 M_⊕. The second series of Jupiter models is computed with the grain opacity at the full interstellar value and . Cutoff runs are computed for core masses of 10 and 5 M_⊕. The third series of runs is computed with the grain opacity at 2% of the interstellar value and . One cutoff run is computed with a core mass of 5 M_⊕. The final series consists of one run, without a cutoff, which is computed with a temperature dependent grain opacity (i.e., 2% of the interstellar value for ramping up to the full interstellar value for ) and . Our results demonstrate that reducing grain opacities results in formation times less than half of those for models computed with full interstellar grain opacity values. The reduction of opacity due to grains in the upper portion of the envelope with has the largest effect on the lowering of the formation time. If the accretion of planetesimals is not cut off prior to the accretion of gas, then decreasing the surface density of planetesimals lowers the final core mass of the protoplanet, but increases the formation timescale considerably. Finally, a core mass cutoff results in a reduction of the time needed for a protoplanet to evolve to the stage of runaway gas accretion, provided the cutoff mass is sufficiently large. The overall results indicate that, with reasonable parameters, it is possible that Jupiter formed at 5 AU via the core accretion process in 1 Myr with a core of 10 M_⊕ or in 5 Myr with a core of 5 M_⊕.     

Observations of the sodium emission from Jupiter,region C

Measurements made when testing an interferometric system for imaging the sodium emission indicate that, between 3 and 7.5 arc min (9 and 23R_J) from Jupiter, the observed emissions can probably be attributed to terrestrial airglow.     

Spectroscopic observations of Jupiter Trojans

We present the results of a campaign of spectroscopic observations of Jupiter Trojan asteroids. Thirty-four objects were observed during three runs in July and November 1998, and March 2002 using the Danish 1.54-m telescope at ESO. The covered spectral range was between 5000 and 9000 Å. Our observations include objects belonging both L₄ to L₅ clouds. According to analyses of previous investigations of Trojans, the spectra of different taxonomic classes can be separated on the basis of the slope of the reflectance spectrum. The large majority of the objects of our sample have been found to belong to the D taxonomic class, but we found also objects of P- and C-type. In two cases, we found also evidence of blueish spectral trends. Our data are important, since they allow us to substantially enlarge the whole data set of available Trojan spectra.