基于能量耗散原理的非均质岩石损伤破坏元胞自动机模型研究

基于能量耗散理论建立非均质岩石的动态损伤破坏元胞自动机,分析单轴压缩试验中岩石破坏截面的损伤状态,得到该情况下的岩石裂隙微观动态发展过程、损伤演化关系以及全程应力应变曲线。研究发现：①加载过程中,均质度较低的岩样裂纹的萌生和扩展较为分散,损伤速率低;均质度较高的岩样裂纹的萌生和扩展非常集中,表现为脆性破坏。②损伤演化曲线呈3阶段S形发展。③随着岩石均质度参数的增加,岩石的峰值强度和峰值应变都有所提高,峰后曲线越来越陡。④给出的衡量岩石脆性破坏强弱程度的指标参数,能够较好地描述岩石破坏形式随着均值度参数m变化的规律。     

Seismic velocities in fractured rocks: an experimental verification of Hudson's theory1

Flow of fluids in many hydrocarbon reservoirs and aquifers is enhanced by the presence of cracks and fractures. These cracks could be detected by their effects on propagation of compressional and shear waves through the reservoir: several theories, including Hudson's, claim to predict the seismic effects of cracks. Although Hudson's theory has already been used to calculate crack densities from seismic surveys, the predictions of the theory have not yet been tested experimentally on rocks containing a known crack distribution. This paper describes an experimental verification of the theory. The rock used, Carrara marble, was chosen for its uniformity and low porosity, so that the effect of cracks would not be obscured by other influences. Cracks were induced by loading of laboratory specimens. Velocities of compressional and shear waves were measured by ultrasound at 0.85 MHz in dry and water-saturated specimens at high and low effective pressures. The cracks were then counted in polished sections of the specimens. In ‘dry’ specimens with both dry and saturated cracks, Hudson's theory overpredicted observed crack densities by a constant amount that is attributed to the observed value being systematically underestimated. The theory made poor predictions for fully saturated specimens. Shear-wave splitting, caused by anisotropy due to both crystal and crack alignment, was observed. Cracks were seen to follow grain boundaries rather than the direction of maximum compression due to loading. The results demonstrate that Hudson's theory may be used in some cases to determine crack and fracture densities from compressional- and shear-wave velocity data.     

A theoretical derivation of the dilatancy equation for brittle rocks based on Maxwell model

In this paper, the micro-cracks in the brittle rocks are assumed to be penny shaped and evenly distributed; the damage and dilatancy of the brittle rocks is attributed to the growth and expansion of numerous micro-cracks under the local tensile stress. A single crack’s behaviour under the local tensile stress is generalized to all cracks based on the distributed damage mechanics. The relationship between the local tensile stress and the external loading is derived based on the Maxwell model. The damage factor corresponding to the external loading is represented using the p–alpha (p–α) model. A dilatancy equation that can build up a link between the external loading and the rock dilatancy is established. A test of dilatancy of a brittle rock under triaxial compression is conducted; the comparison between experimental results and our theoretical results shows good consistency.     

破裂带发展的扫描电镜实验研究及其对地震前兆的启示

在扫描电镜下对带割缝的大理岩试件进行了单轴压缩实验.在加载的全过程中,观察了试件表面裂纹的产生、扩展、平面分布以及断裂扩展前缘处的微裂纹在主断裂扩展前后的开、闭变化,并分析了它们与外载之间的关系.在显微照片上量测了主断裂的宽度随外载水平及测点所在部位的变化规律.在实验测定和结果分析的基础上,解释了脆性岩石材料在宏观裂纹扩展时的断裂能明显偏离线弹性断裂力学预测值的原因,提出了以标量作为岩石损伤力学中的损伤量的设想,探讨了实验结果对了解地震前兆（如大地形变和地下水位异常）可能起到的作用.将实验观察到的微破裂活动与1975年海城7.3级地震前地下水位异常做了对比分析,发现两者在时空分布方面有许多相似之处.     

Modeling Wing Crack Extension: Implications for the Ingredients of Discrete Element Model

In this study, we investigate what basic mechanisms a Discrete Element Model should have in order to reproduce the realistic wing crack extension, a widely observed phenomenon in uni-axial compression of brittle material with pre-existed crack. Using our Discrete Element Model—the Lattice Solid Model, we study how cracks propagate when different force-displacement laws are emplyed. Our results suggest that the basic features of crack propagation observed in laboratories cannot be reproduced under the following circumstances: 1) When only normal forces between two bonded particles exist and particle rotation is prohibited; 2) normal and shear stiffnesses are present and particle rotation is prohibited; 3) normal, shear stiffnesses and particle rotation are present and bending (rolling) stiffness is absent. Only when normal, shear and bending stiffness exist and particle rotation is permitted, is it possible to reproduce laboratory tests. We conclude that particle rotations and rolling resistance play a significant role and cannot be neglected while modeling such phenomenon. The effects of friction in the crack plane and confining pressure on extension of the cracks are also discussed.     

非穿透裂纹平板试件三维破裂的实验研究

在研究地震孕育及震源破裂的问题时,用三维破裂来模拟地震破裂过程,比二维破裂与实际更加接近。我们设计了一组实验,采用几种不同的材料（玻璃、有机玻璃和大理石等）做成平板试件,在其中心预制非穿透裂纹,并在单轴压下进行了实验研究。 实验结果表明,非穿透裂纹与穿透裂纹的扩展情况有质的差别。非穿透裂纹的扩展并不沿原裂纹面延伸,而是沿裂纹前缘扩展出许多裂纹面,每一个破裂面都是复杂的扭曲、拐折的曲面。这可能意味着实际地震断层的扩展情况也是极为复杂的。     

岩石细观破裂的实验观测研究及其对认识地震活动性的启示

对合一条预制中心割缝的大理岩六边形试件进行了对边均匀加压实验，在扫描电镜下实时观测了细观裂纹的起裂、扩展过程，研究了它们与外载大小和方向之间的关系．用实验过程中拍摄的显微照片测量与计算了裂端距（割缝周围次级裂纹开裂点至割缝端点的距离）与外载方向之间的关系，并分析了当加载方向变化时裂纹扩展的特征及变化规律．最后将实验结果与滇西北洱源－鹤庆断裂尾端张性盆地的发育过程做了对比，发现两者在受力方向改变时，次级断层的发育过程具有相似之处．     

A Model for the Mechanical Behaviour of Bentheim Sandstone in the Brittle Regime

— The mechanical behaviour of Bentheim sandstone, a homogeneous quartz-rich sandstone with porosity of 22.8%, was investigated by triaxial compression tests conducted on dry samples. At confining pressures up to 35 MPa, the failure mode was characterized by a typical brittle deformation regime, as the samples showed dilatancy and failed by strain softening and brittle faulting. Previous studies have shown that the mechanical behaviour and failure mode of brittle porous granular rocks are governed by the time-dependent growth of microcracks. We analyse this process using the “Pore Crack Model” based on fracture mechanics analysis. It is consistent with the microstructure of porous granular rocks since it considers the growth of axial cracks from cylindrical holes in two dimensions. These cracks grow when their stress intensity factors reach the subcritical crack growth limit. Interaction between neighbouring cracks is introduced by calculating the stress intensity factor as the sum of two terms: a component for an isolated crack and an interaction term computed using the method of successive approximations. It depends on crack length, pore radius, pore density, and applied stresses. The simulation of crack growth from cylindrical holes, associated with a failure criterion based on the coalescence of interacting cracks, is used to compare the theoretical stress at the onset of dilatancy and at macroscopic rupture to the experimental determined values. Our approach gives theoretical results in good agreement with experimental data when microstructural parameters consistent with observations are introduced.     

剪切破裂与粘滑——浅源强震发震机制的研究

周口店花岗闪长岩的高温高压三轴实验和理论分析表明,剪切破裂和摩擦滑移具有类似的孕育过程和发生机制。剪切破裂贯通强度就是一种摩擦强度。剪切破裂和摩擦滑移各自都有渐进式和突发式之分。突发式摩擦滑移是已有断层的粘滑滑移。突发式剪切破裂则是完整岩石的初始粘滑滑移。考虑到地壳温度随深度增加,完整岩石剪裂强震要求较高的围压,因此,多数浅源强震的发震方式很可能是已有断层的粘滑     

大理岩试件中裂缝的逆向共轭剪破裂

本文介绍了以激光全息干涉法观测单轴压缩下,大理岩岩样表面的变形位移场。全息干涉图可以反映出由于岩石内部微裂隙丛集激增所导致的变形局部化,实验采用板状大理岩试件,在中心处预制了不同角度的裂缝,实验在MTS伺服压机中加载直至宏观破坏,观测了裂隙的发展过程。实验表明:当裂缝角小于45时,先在裂缝尖端处的张应力集中部位出现新裂纹,它的起裂角(与原裂缝的交角)90,裂纹弯向压力方向并趋于稳定。当>45时,在上述张裂纹稳定后,在裂缝尖端附近再次发生张裂,其起裂角60,同样弯向压力方向后稳定。在这些前期张破裂稳定后,在张裂的相反方向,也即裂缝的共轭方向上,出现内部微裂隙的丛集,并随后发生宏观的剪破坏,我们认为此逆向剪切破坏与大理岩的多晶组构有关,与应变弱化过程中变形和应力的调整有关。      

X射线岩石CT的历史与现状

采用X射线CT技术无损探测岩石内部结构和裂纹演化过程 ,起源于 2 0世纪 80年代后期 ,由最初对CT图像的认识逐步深化为对岩石裂纹演化规律的分析和应用研究。基于室内岩石试件扫描断面的CT图像 ,目前在岩石变形破坏过程的实时监测、加荷条件多样化、裂纹演化规律性、裂纹宽度的定量测量、岩石裂纹三维图像重建、损伤演化与损伤变量分析、CT成果应用研究等方面取得了一系列进展。岩石CT面临的主要问题是如何获得各种试验条件下精确的CT图像及其成果的应用研究。岩石CT的生命力在于自身理论、技术发展和在相关领域的应用程度     

Experimental investigation of three-dimensional propagation process from surface fault

Experimental study of the formation and propagation of three-dimensional (3D) faults is of great sig- nificance in the understanding of the propagation process developing from initial natural faults. In the study described in this paper, experimental investigations of 3D propagation processes of a type of surface fault are carried out under biaxial compression. The strain field near the surface fault is dy- namically measured and fully analyzed with a high-density Multi-Channel Digital Strain Gauge (MCDSG) and Digital Speckle Correlation Method (DSCM) based on the white-light image analysis. Simultane- ously the micro-fracture process involved in fault formation is observed by a 3D acoustic emission (AE) location system with a set of multi-channel whole-wave record equipment. The experimental results show that the 3D propagation process of surface fault differs greatly from that of the two-dimensional (2D) state and that a new more complicated type of 3D morphological characters and deformation mechanisms are produced. The 3D propagation process of surface faults may be divided into three stages: 1) the first stage of crack propagation initiated by wing cracks; 2) the conversion stage propa- gated by petal cracks; and 3) the second stage of crack propagation formed by shell-shaped fracture surface. The primary propagation patterns of the three stages are different. The corresponding defor- mation fields and micro-fracture distributions are likewise different. The fracture activities from petal cracks especially are of vital importance during surface fault propagation. This is also a key conversion state and marks an intrinsic difference between 2D-like and the 3D state in fault development.     

岩石裂纹附近的变形局部化与破坏——激光全息干涉法的应用

本文介绍了应用激光全息干涉法观测单轴压缩条件下裂纹附近的离面位移场和岩石的变形破坏过程。着重指出了裂纹构造活动与微裂隙丛集发育的变形局部化前兆在这种破坏过程中的相互关联,并就其所反映的震源物理本质进行了讨论。     

双轴压缩下组合裂纹的动态扩张实验研究

本文运用动态光弹性技术，实验研究了几种与地震孕育构造背景相近的组合裂纹在双轴压缩下的扩展规律，对裂纹扩展路径、稳定性作了分析，并与单轴压缩情况进行了对比，同时还研究了摩擦力对裂纹扩展的影响。通过上述研究，得出了压剪应力场中裂纹稳定扩展等结论。     

The damage mechanics of brittle solids in compression

The development of microcrack damage in brittle solids in compression is analyzed, using a simple model. The model is developed from recent detailed analysis of the initiation, propagation and linkage of microfractures from pre-existing cracks, voids, or other inhomogeneities. It describes the evolution of damage with strain and from it a criteria for failure can be established. The results are used to construct failure surfaces in stress space which combine information about brittle failure with data describing the onset of plastic yielding. Such failure surfaces are constructed for a number of rocks and are compared with previously published experimental data.     

考虑劣化屈服老化裂纹后混凝土水库堤坝排水边坡抗震性研究

针对在水库堤坝排水边坡混凝土裂纹的抗震性研究中,未考虑岩土体抗剪强度参数的劣化屈服效应以及混凝土裂纹的老化,存在抗震性判断结果准确率较差等问题,提出水库堤坝排水边坡混凝土考虑老化后产生裂纹的抗震性能研究方法。模拟强震下边坡混凝土的开裂破坏过程,根据D-P屈服准则,实现对闸墩混凝土材料的屈服判断。采用薄层整体单元模拟和分离式裂纹单元,实现混凝土裂纹的数值模拟,加载地震波后,获取混凝土裂纹的强震响应规律与破坏特征。实验结果可知,本文方法对坝体位移变化的研究精度高,得到的混凝土裂纹扩展范围更为准。运用本文方法对水库堤坝排水边坡混凝土的抗震性研究准确率以及可信度较高,说明本文方法具有一定的可取性。     

具有割缝的大理岩试件破坏过程的有限元模拟

本文使用应变软化的弹塑性本构模型,用有限元方法对具有中心斜割缝的岩石试件在轴压下的破坏过程进行了数值模拟。得到了与实验观察相当一致的结果:在割线端部附近,首先发生张破裂,裂纹的扩张是逐渐地弯向试件的轴线方向,并变为稳定的。随着轴向压力增加,在张裂纹的相反方向上出现共轭的剪破裂。这些现象与割缝顶端附近材料的应变软化性质有关。说明所采用的有限元方法是研究岩石材料破裂过程的一种可行的方法。     

The Effect of Varying Damage History in Crystalline Rocks on the P- and S-Wave Velocity under Hydrostatic Confining Pressure

Cracks play a very important role in many geotechnical issues and in a number of processes in the Earth’s crust. Elastic waves can be used as a remote sensing tool for determining crack density. The effect of varying crack density in crystalline rock on the P- and S-wave velocity and dynamic elastic properties under confining pressure has been quantified. The evolution of P- and S-wave velocity were monitored as a suite of dry Westerly granite samples were taken to 60, 70, 80 and 90 % of the unconfined uniaxial strength of the sample. The damaged samples were then subjected to hydrostatic confining pressure from 2 MPa to 200 MPa to quantify the effect of varying crack density on the P- and S-wave velocity and elastic properties under confining pressure. The opening and propagation of microcracks predominantly parallel to the loading direction during uniaxial loading caused a 0.5 and 6.3 % decrease in the P- and S-wave velocity, respectively. During hydrostatic loading, microcracks are closed at 130 MPa confining pressure. At lower pressures the amount of crack damage in the samples has a small but measureable effect. We observed a systematic 6 and 4 % reduction in P- and S-wave velocity, respectively, due to an increase in the fracture density at 2 MPa confining pressure. The overall reduction in the P- and S-wave velocity decreased to 2 and 1 %, respectively, at 50 MPa. The elastic wave velocities of samples that have a greater amount of microcrack damage are more sensitive to pressure. Effective medium modelling was used to invert elastic wave velocities and infer crack density evolution. Comparing the crack density results with experimental data on Westerly granite samples shows that the effective medium modelling used gave interpretable and reasonable results. Changes in crack density can be interpreted as closure or opening of cracks and crack growth.     

A two-stage model of fracture of rocks

In this paper we propose a two-stage model of rock fracture. In the first stage, cracks or local regions of failure are uncorrelated and occur randomly throughout the rock in response to loading of pre-existing flaws. As damage accumulates in the rock, there is a gradual increase in the probability that large clusters of closely spaced cracks or local failure sites will develop. Based on statistical arguments, a critical density of damage will occur where clusters of flaws become large enough to lead to larger-scale failure of the rock (stage two). While crack interaction and cooperative failure is expected to occur within clusters of closely spaced cracks, the initial development of clusters is predicted based on the random variation in pre-existing flaw populations. Thus the onset of the unstable second stage in the model can be computed from the generation of random, uncorrelated damage. The proposed model incorporates notions of the kinetic (and therefore time-dependent) nature of the strength of solids as well as the discrete hierarchic structure of rocks and the flaw populations that lead to damage accumulation. The advantage offered by this model is that its salient features are valid for fracture processes occurring over a wide range of scales including earthquake processes. A notion of the rank of fracture (fracture size) is introduced, and criteria are presented for both fracture nucleation and the transition of the failure process from one scale to another.