黄土高原塬区地表辐射和热量平衡观测与分析

利用2005年夏季黄土高原塬区陆面过程野外试验(LOPEX05)的观测资料,初步分析了甘肃平凉黄土高原塬区地表辐射收支和热量平衡特征。结果显示,黄土高原塬区地面长波辐射大于大气长波辐射,典型晴天、阴天和雨天情况下两者平均差值分别为65,25和8 W.m-2;对于地气能量交换各个分量而言,黄土高原塬上和塬下在相同下垫面下的差别不大,但裸地和有植被的下垫面差别很明显;在白天,潜热在净辐射中所占的比重较大,其次是感热,最后是土壤热通量。对能量平衡中的储存项如热通量板上层土壤的热存储和植被冠层存储进行了估算,结果表明,土壤的热储存项在-30~70W.m-2之间,而植被的热能储存项在-10~25 W.m-2之间。在考虑估算的存储项之后,能量平衡散布图斜率由0.68提高到0.79,相关系数R由0.90提高到0.93,两者分别提高了11.0%和3.0%,并对能量不平衡有明显的改进,说明能量储存项在地表能量闭合中必须考虑。     

Comparison of in-situ measured ground heat fluxes within a heteorogeneous urban ballast layer

Summary This study concentrates on measurements of ground heat fluxes within a porous urban ballast layer that were conducted from June to September 2002 at the goods station in Osnabrück, Germany. To account for the limitation of accurately installing sensors within the heterogeneous and porous ballast bulk, the heat fluxes were calculated from four different methods to compare their variability, dynamics and shortcomings. Ground heat fluxes were gathered from 1) a heat flux plate with the inclusion of heat storage between the soil surface and the heat flux plate, 2) temperature gradient measurements with correction for heat storage, 3) temperature gradient measurements with a modelled surface temperature and a laboratory derived thermal conductivity, 4) as residual from the surface energy balance equation. The results show a distinct deviation of the four methods for absolute values of the ground heat flux as well as for temporal dynamics on the diurnal cycle. As indicated by the temporal dynamics of the ground heat flux times series and a simple error analysis of the four methods, the most plausible estimates for an urban application in a heterogeneous ballast layer were obtained by temperature gradient measurements between the surface and −0.05 m. Overall, the results indicate that accurate ground heat flux measurements in urban applications still prove difficult to acquire.     

均匀裸土地表土壤热通量计算方法对比及对能量闭合的影响

利用"内蒙古微气象观测蒸发试验"的观测资料,对6种地表土壤热通量计算方法(Plate Cal法、TDEC法、谐波法、热传导对流法、振幅法和相位法)进行比较,检验了6种方法在不同干湿地表状况下的适用性,并研究了6种方法计算地表土壤热通量的差异以及对地表能量闭合度的影响。结果表明:一般情况下,Plate Cal法计算的2 cm土壤热通量与观测值最接近,计算结果的均方差为6.9 W/m2。在不同干湿地表状况下,干燥和降水条件下适合使用Plate Cal法,计算结果的均方差分别为14.0 W/m2和30.1 W/m2;湿润条件下适合使用谐波法,计算结果的均方差为21.4 W/m2。6种方法计算的地表土壤热通量存在明显差别,最大相差178.6 W/m2,不同方法计算地表土壤热通量的最大差值超过25 W/m2的时次占样本的96.3%。不同方法计算地表土壤热通量的差异对地表能量闭合度的大小有明显影响,但不影响近地层能量闭合度随湍流混合增强而增大的规律。     

半干旱草原下垫面能量平衡特征及土壤热通量对能量闭合率的影响

土壤热通量在半干旱草原下垫面能量平衡研究中极为重要,土壤热通量估计不够准确是导致地表能量不平衡的一个重要原因。利用2008年6—9月锡林郭勒草原主生长期地表辐射、通量和土壤温度梯度观测资料,研究中纬度半干旱草原下垫面地表能量平衡特征。首先,在分析能量平衡各分量月平均日变化特征的基础上,通过对土壤热流量板观测的5 cm深度土壤热通量(G)的相位前移,研究了土壤热通量相位滞后对地表能量平衡产生的影响;其次,利用谐波分析方法,通过计算地表土壤热通量(Gs),分析了地表到热流量板之间的土壤热量储存对地表能量平衡的影响。结果表明:(1)将土壤热通量相位前移30 min,湍流通量与可利用能量(Rn-G)线性回归的斜率从0.835增加到0.842,地表能量闭合率提高了0.7%,但仍有15.8%的能量不闭合;(2)考虑了地表到热流量板之间的土壤热量储存之后,湍流通量与可利用能量之间的回归斜率达到0.979,能量不闭合程度仅为2.1%。     

两种土壤温度算法的对比分析

为了定量理解黄土高原土壤的物理特性和过程, 为进一步提高陆面模式对该地区地表能量平衡模拟能力奠定基础, 本文利用2005年黄土高原陆面过程试验中7月22～26日期间裸土地表观测站土壤温度观测资料, 采用热传导（结合数学拟合法)、热传导－对流两种方法分别计算了该地区土壤热扩散率。本文还利用热传导－对流方法计算0.05～0.1 m浅薄土壤层的热扩散率垂直梯度与水通量密度之和, 其值介于0.80×10-6～2.43×10-6m/s之间。在此基础之上, 以0.05 m深度的土壤层为上边界, 分别利用上述两种方法模拟0.10 m深度的土壤层温度, 结果表明: 由于忽略土壤的垂直不均匀性和水分的垂直运动而只考虑热传导过程, 热传导方法不仅高估了土壤温度振幅, 而且高估了位相的延迟。而热传导－对流方法对温度振幅和位相的模拟值与实际观测值吻合较好, 白天 (北京时间08:00～20:00) 的温度模拟值相对测量值的平均误差、 标准差和归一化标准差分别为0.19 K、0.18 K和0.08%。     

A Variational Method for Estimating Near-Surface Soil Moisture and Surface Heat Fluxes

A variational data assimilation method is proposed to estimate the near-surface soil moisture and surface sensible and latent heat fluxes.The method merges the five parts into a cost function,i.e.,the differences of wind,potential temperature,anti specific humidity gradient between observations and those computed by the profile method,the difference of latent heat fluxes calculated using the ECMWF land surface evaporation scheme and the profile method,and a weak constraint for surface energy balance.By using an optimal algorithm,the best solutions are found.The method is tested with the data collected at Feixi Station (31.41°N,117.08°E) supported by the China Heavy Rain Experiment and Study (HeRES) during 7-30 June 2001.The results show that estimated near-surface soil moistures can quickly respond to rainfall,and their temporal variation is consistent with that of measurements of average soil moisture over 15-cm top depth with a maximum error less than 0.03 m~3 m~(-3).The surface heat fluxes calculated by this method are consistent with those by the Bowen ratio method,but at the same time it can overcome the instability problem occurring in the Bowen ratio method when the latter is about-1.Meanwhile,the variational method is more accurate than the profile method in terms of satisfying the surface energy balance.The sensitivity tests also show that the variational method is the most stable one among the three methods.     

土壤热异常对地表能量平衡影响初探

将来自土壤深部的热通量引入off line的陆面过程模式 (NCAR—LSM ) ,通过长达 2a的数值试验对比分析了它对各层次土壤温度和地表能量平衡的影响。　　在土壤底部引入 5W /m2 的热通量使底层土壤显著升温 ,但升温随着接近表层而迅速衰减。积分 3个月后 ,由地下进入地表的热流量增幅可达 1W/m2 以上 ,并持续增大到 5W /m2 ,地表最大升温约 0 .5K ,同时地表感热、蒸发潜热及长波辐射通量均有 1W /m2 左右的正异常 ;若将土壤热传导系数放大一个量级以加速热量交换 ,则地表升温提高到 1K以上 ,长波辐射增加 3W /m2 以上 ,超过了气溶胶全球平均的辐射效应。结果表明 :一定量值的土壤热异常对地表能量平衡和短期气候变化 (10 -1～ 10 1a)有着不可忽略的影响。同时 ,深入的资料分析、完善的陆面过程模式以及它与大气模式的耦合试验也是亟待进行的相关工作。     

卫星遥感确定沙特阿拉伯吉达地区非均匀地表区域地表参数和能量通量

对临海沙漠地区非均匀地表区域地表能量通量和蒸发(蒸散)的研究,是一个十分重要但又是一个难点问题。本文提出了1个基于卫星遥感和地面观测的参数化方案,并把其应用于沙特阿拉伯吉达地区,利用1个景的陆地资源卫星Landsat-7E^TM^ 资料进行了分析研究,得到了一些有关临海沙漠地区非均匀地表区域地表特征参数、植被参数和地表能量通量的新概念。最后讨论了所提出的参数化方案的适用范围和需改进之处。     

半干旱草地地表土壤热通量的计算及其对能量平衡的影响

利用2008年7月兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测(SACOL)站的观测资料,对比分析了地表土壤热通量的三种计算方法,即谐波法、温度预报校正法(TDEC法)以及结合自校正热通量板(HFP01SC)测量的温度积分法(ITHP法);进而分析了三种不同方法的计算结果对地表能量平衡的影响。比较5cm深度处谐波法和TDEC法的计算结果与HFP01SC的实测结果,三者的相位基本一致,相互之间均具有很好的线性关系;谐波法与TDEC法的计算值较为接近,但分别比HFP01SC的实测值偏大了2%和6%(主要发生在夜间)。对于地表的土壤热通量(G0),谐波法与TDEC法两者的计算结果仅偏差约1%;TDEC法与ITHP法的计算结果之间也具有很好的线性关系(R2=0.99),但偏差达到9%左右。相对于HFP01SC的实测结果,由谐波法和TDEC法计算的G0可将SACOL站的地表能量闭合率分别提高6%和7%左右;利用温度积分法将HFP01SC的实测结果校正到地表后,地表能量闭合率也提高了约6%。因此,在对涡动相关通量做了常规订正的情况下,当充分考虑了土壤热存储后,SACOL站的地表能量闭合率可提高6%～7%,达到82%～83%左右。     

Effects of the soil heat flux estimates on surface energy balance closure over a semi-arid grassland

Soil heat flux is important for surface energy balance (SEB), and inaccurate estimation of soil heat flux often leads to surface energy imbalance. In this paper, by using observations of surface radiation fluxes and soil temperature gradients at a semi-arid grassland in Xilingguole, Inner Mongolia, China from June to September 2008, the characters of the SEB for the semi-arid grassland were analyzed. Firstly, monthly averaged diurnal variations of SEB components were revealed. A 30-min forward phase displacement of soil heat flux (G) observed by a fluxplate at the depth of 5-cm below the soil surface was conducted and its effect on the SEB was studied. Secondly, the surface soil heat flux (G _s) was computed by using harmonic analysis and the effect of the soil heat storage between the surface and the fluxplate on the SEB was examined. The results show that with the 30-min forward phase displacement of observed G, the slope of the ordinary linear regression (OLR) of turbulent fluxes (H+LE) against available energy (R _n-G) increased from 0.835 to 0.842, i.e., the closure ratio of SEB increased by 0.7%, yet energy imclosure of 15.8% still existed in the SEB. When G _s, instead of G was used in the SEB equation, the slope of corresponding OLR of (H+LE) against (R _n-G _s) reached 0.979, thereby the imclosure ratio of SEB was reduced to only 2.1%.     

Simulation of the Bare Soil Surface Energy Balance at the Tongyu Reference Site in Semiarid Area of North China

The performance of a 1-D soil model in a semiarid area of North China was investigated using observational data from a cropland station at the Tongyu reference site of the Coordinated Enhanced Observing Period (CEOP) during the non-growing period, when the ground surface was covered with bare soil. Comparisons between simulated and observed soil surface energy balance components as well as soil temperatures and water contents were conducted to validate the soil model. Results show that the soil model could produce good simulations of soil surface temperature, net radiation flux and sensible heat flux against observed values with the RMSE of 1.54oC, 7.71 W m-2 and 27.79 W m-2, respectively. The simulated volumetric soil water content is close to the observed values at various depths with the maximal difference between them being 0.03. Simulated latent heat and ground heat fluxes have relatively lower errors in relative to net radiation and sensible heat flux. In conclusion, the soil model has good capacity to simulate the bare soil surface energy balance at the Tongyu cropland station and needs to be further tested in longer period and at more sites in semiarid areas.     

植被覆盖异常变化影响陆面状况的数值模拟

利用NCAR最新的公用陆面模式CLM3．0，通过数值模拟初步研究了植被叶面积指数（LAI，leafareaindex）异常变化对陆面状况的可能影响，结果表明，植被LAI的异常变化能够引起地表能量平衡、地表水循环等陆面状况的异常。（1）植被LAI的异常变化主要影响太阳辐射在植被与地表之间的分配，以及地表的感热、潜热通量。植被LAI增大，能够引起植被吸收的太阳辐射增加，而到达土壤表面的太阳辐射减小，并导致植被的蒸发、蒸腾潜热通量增加，造成地表的蒸发潜热和感热通量不同程度的减小。（2）植被LAI增大时，植被对降水的拦截和植被叶面的蒸发增大，植被的蒸腾作用也明显增强；植被LAI增加会使得热带地区各个季节的土壤表面蒸发、地表径流减小，而土壤湿度有所增加；LAI增加造成中高纬度地区土壤蒸发的减少主要出现在夏季；LAI增加还能够引起中高纬地区冬、春积雪深度不同程度的增加，造成春末、夏初地表径流的增加。（3）植被LAI增加能够使得叶面和土壤温度有所下降，但植被LAI的变化对叶面、土壤温度的影响相对较小。     

Estimation of ground heat flux from soil temperature over a bare soil

Ground soil heat flux, G ₀, is a difficult-to-measure but important component of the surface energy budget. Over the past years, many methods were proposed to estimate G ₀; however, the application of these methods was seldom validated and assessed under different weather conditions. In this study, three popular models (force-restore, conduction-convection, and harmonic) and one widely used method (plate calorimetric), which had well performance in publications, were investigated using field data to estimate daily G ₀ on clear, cloudy, and rainy days, while the gradient calorimetric method was regarded as the reference for assessing the accuracy. The results showed that harmonic model was well reproducing the G ₀ curve for clear days, but it yielded large errors on cloudy and rainy days. The force-restore model worked well only under rainfall condition, but it was poor to estimate G ₀ under rain-free conditions. On the contrary, the conduction-convection model was acceptable to determine G ₀ under rain-free conditions, but it generated large errors on rainfall days. More importantly, the plate calorimetric method was the best to estimate G ₀ under different weather conditions compared with the three models, but the performance of this method is affected by the placement depth of the heat flux plate. As a result, the heat flux plate was recommended to be buried as close as possible to the surface under clear condition. But under cloudy and rainy conditions, the plate placed at depth of around 0.075 m yielded G ₀ well. Overall, the findings of this paper provide guidelines to acquire more accurate estimation of G ₀ under different weather conditions, which could improve the surface energy balance in field.     

下垫面非均匀性的模拟

用美国大气科学中心ＧＥＮＥＳＩＳ模式中的陆面过程方案,我们在一个全球大气模式网格尺度范围内,研究了来自非均匀下垫面的水汽,能量等通量。基于３种不同的模拟下垫面非均匀性的方法,即马赛克法、混合法以及显式次网格法,我们设计了４种不同的试验。模拟结果表明,３种方法计算出的结果有很大的不同：地面吸收的太阳辐射差异达４％;感热通量达１２％;潜热通量达６６％;土壤水分可达３０％。这一结果说明有必要用实测数据来检验不同的模拟下垫面非均匀性的方法以及用区域气候模式来模拟下垫面的非均匀性。     

利用气象卫星资料对春季土壤水分进行监测的地面响应模型的研究

根据卫星遥感中利用热惯量法监测土壤水分的原理,考虑辐射平衡和潜热交换,分析了土壤热通量与地面辐射的关系及显热交换和潜热交换对土壤热通量的影响,建立土壤水分模型,为农业气象服务提供科学依据,也为利用卫星资料监测春季裸地土壤水分提供地面响应模型。     

Towards Closing the Surface Energy Budget of a Mid-latitude Grassland

Observations for May and August, 2005, from a long-term grassland meteorological station situated in central Netherlands were used to evaluate the closure of the surface energy budget. We compute all possible enthalpy changes, such as the grass cover heat storage, dew water heat storage, air mass heat storage and the photosynthesis energy flux, over an averaging time interval. In addition, the soil heat flux was estimated using a harmonic analysis technique to obtain a more accurate assessment of the surface soil heat flux. By doing so, a closure of 96% was obtained. The harmonic analysis technique appears to improve closure by 9%, the photosynthesis for 3% and the rest of the storage terms for a 3% improvement of the energy budget closure. For calm nights (friction velocity u _* < 0.1 m s⁻¹) when the eddy covariance technique is unreliable for measurement of the vertical turbulent fluxes, the inclusion of a scheme that calculates dew fluxes improves the energy budget closure significantly.     

Surface energy balance measurements over a banana plantation in South China

The land surface energy exchange depends highly on the surface properties. Little is known of the energy balance over a typical banana plantation of humid tropics. In this study, we examine the characteristics of surface energy exchange over a typical banana field in South China during the period of May 2010 to April 2011 by using the eddy covariance and micrometeorological tower. The results showed that the diurnal and seasonal variations in surface latent heat flux were larger compared with those over the nearby grassland. The dominant energy partitioning varies with season. The latent heat flux was the main consumer of net radiation in summer, whereas the sensible heat flux was the main consumer in winter. The increasing cloud coverage and rain appear to control the surface energy balance with the development of the monsoon. Due to increased afternoon convective cloud systems in the monsoon active period, downward shortwave radiation was dramatically diminished around 14:00?pm. The annual mean Bowen ratio was 0.69, which fell within the range of other vegetated surfaces. The observed surface energy components were not closed, and the ratio of turbulent fluxes to the available energy was about 77 % in October–January and about 85 % in the other months after considering soil heat and air heat storage.     

沙尘气溶胶对半干旱区微气象学特征影响的初步研究

沙尘气溶胶通过改变地表—大气间的短波及长波辐射从而对地气间热量传输产生影响,进而影响到地表能量收支平衡以及近地面层气象要素的分布。半干旱区是我国干旱化表现最为剧烈的地区,也是沙尘暴频发地区和主要源区之一。本文利用吉林通榆半干旱区国际协调强化观测计划基准站2006年4～6月近地层微气象、地表辐射通量和沙尘气溶胶浓度观测资料,对比分析了该地区在典型沙尘暴天气、扬沙天气和晴朗天气等不同天气状况下近地层各气象要素、地表能量平衡及辐射收支的变化特征。结果表明,沙尘气溶胶对半干旱地区地面微气象学特征及辐射收支具有明显的影响,且表现出不同于干旱区的若干特性:半干旱区沙尘天气下的平均风速比晴天高约2m.s-1,而相对湿度则降低了约35%。相对而言,气温和浅层地温的变化对沙尘的影响响应较弱。半干旱区在沙尘天气时地表净辐射小于晴天,感热/潜热通量分别约占净辐射的55%和30%,分别远大于/远小于晴天时的情形。该地区气溶胶质量浓度与日均感热、相对湿度、潜热等要素具有明显的相关,相关系数分别高达0.70、-0.75和-0.62。相比之下,干旱区沙尘天气时的感热通量要小于晴天时的值,而且气象要素的响应更加剧烈。     

Evaluation of Noah-LSM for soil hydrology parameters in the Indian summer monsoon conditions

The micrometeorological observations, collected over a station in Ranchi (23°45′N, 85°30′E) which is under the monsoon trough region of India, were used in the Noah-LSM (NCEP, OSU, Air Force and Office of Hydrology Land Surface Model) to investigate the model performance in wet (2009 and 2011) and dry (2010) conditions during the south-west summer monsoon season. With this analysis, it is seen that the Noah-LSM has simulated the diurnal cycle of heat fluxes (sensible and ground) reasonably. The simulated heat fluxes were compared with its direct measurements by sonic anemometer and soil heat flux plate. The net radiation and sensible heat flux are simulated well by the model, but the simulation of ground heat flux was found to be poor in both dry as well as wet conditions. The soil temperature simulations were also found to be poor in 0–5- and 5–10-cm layers compared to other deeper layers. The observations were also correlated with the Modern Era Retrospective-analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA) data. The correlation between the observations and ground heat flux was better in MERRA dataset than that of the Noah-LSM simulation.     

Subdaily to Seasonal Change of Surface Energy and Water Flux of the Haihe River Basin in China: Noah and Noah-MP Assessment

The land surface processes of the Noah-MP and Noah models are evaluated over four typical landscapes in the Haihe River Basin(HRB) using in-situ observations. The simulated soil temperature and moisture in the two land surface models(LSMs) is consistent with the observation, especially in the rainy season. The models reproduce the mean values and seasonality of the energy fluxes of the croplands, despite the obvious underestimated total evaporation. Noah shows the lower deep soil temperature. The net radiation is well simulated for the diurnal time scale. The daytime latent heat fluxes are always underestimated, while the sensible heat fluxes are overestimated to some degree. Compared with Noah, Noah-MP has improved daily average soil heat flux with diurnal variations. Generally, Noah-MP performs fairly well for different landscapes of the HRB. The simulated cold bias in soil temperature is possibly linked with the parameterized partition of the energy into surface fluxes. Thus, further improvement of these LSMs remains a major challenge.