Tradable permit programs: What are the lessons for the new Alaska halibut catch sharing plan?

To address long-standing allocation conflicts between the Pacific halibut commercial fishing sector and recreational charter (for-hire) sector in Alaska, an Alaska halibut catch sharing plan (CSP) is being implemented in 2014 that has a provision allowing the leasing of commercial individual fishing quota to recreational charter businesses. This one-way inter-sectoral trading allows for the charter sector to increase its share of the total allowable catch while compensating commercial fishermen. This type of catch shares program is novel in fisheries. In this paper, the literature on non-fisheries tradable permit programs (TPPs) that have similarities to the Alaska halibut CSP program is examined. Several successful TPPs are discussed, including ones from emissions trading programs, water quality trading programs, water markets, and transferable development rights programs. They are then evaluated in terms of their similarities and differences to the Alaska CSP program. Characteristics not part of the current CSP that other TPPs have used and that may increase the likelihood for the CSP to be effective in achieving its primary goals (if they are implemented) are identified, such as allowing more flexible transfers (e.g., internal transfers), intertemporal banking, cooperative structures, and multi-year leasing.     

Saltwater sport fishing for food or income in the Northeastern US: Statistical estimates and policy implications

In the Northeast US fishery managers have attempted to control marine recreational fishing mortality through annual adjustments to the number and/or size of fish that can be kept. These measures, with a few exceptions, have generally failed to prevent recreational fishing mortality rates from exceeding annual target levels. In this study, we show that one of the reasons why keep limits may have failed is that a substantial number of anglers obtain little value from being able to keep self-caught fish. Our findings are based on a telephone survey administered to marine anglers in all of the coastal counties in the Northeast US in 2004/2005. To evaluate the importance of keeping self-caught fish, we provide estimates of the size of the marine angling population in the Northeast US that keeps fish for food or income and also for those that fish primarily for recreation and place little or no value on keeping fish. Demographic characteristics of the two groups of anglers are compared statistically and differences related to consumption of self-caught marine resources and to health warning advisories are discussed. We also estimate the size of the Northeast US angling population that relies on their self-caught marine resources as a cost-saving food source or as a supplement to household income. This information could improve the effectiveness of fisheries regulations and the ability of policy analysts to predict how anglers might be affected by proposed fishery management actions.     

Whale interactions with Alaskan sablefish and Pacific halibut fisheries: Surveying fishermen perception,changing fishing practices and mitigation

Whale depredation occurs when whales steal fish, damage fish or damage fishing gear. In Alaska, killer whales (Orcinus orca) and sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) primarily depredate on demersal sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria) and Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) longline fisheries. Quantitative data on whale depredation in Alaska is limited due to low fishery observer coverage and minimal depredation evidence left on longline fishing gear. This study utilized semidirected interviews (n=70) and written questionnaires (n=95) with longline fishermen to examine: (1) perceptions and experiences of whale–fishery interactions in Alaska, (2) effects of depredation on fishing practices, and (3) potential depredation mitigation measures. Eighty-seven percent of fishermen surveyed agreed that whale depredation became worse between 1990 and 2010. Respondents reported changing their fishing practices in response to depredating whales in several ways, including: traveling up to 50 nautical miles and ceasing hauling operations up to 24 h until the whales left the fishing grounds. Respondents fishing in western Alaska, primarily encountering killer whales, were forced to wait longer and travel greater distances than fishermen operating in central and southeast Alaska, regions more affected by sperm whales. Deterrent research, gear modifications and real-time tracking of depredating whales were solutions favored by study participants. Survey respondent answers varied based on areas fished, quota owned, years involved in the fishery and vessel size. This study presents the first statewide evaluation of fishermen's perception and knowledge of whale interactions with the Alaskan longline fleet and is a critical step toward developing baseline data and feasible depredation mitigation strategies.     

Social,economic and environmental effects of closing commercial fisheries to enhance recreational fishing

Recreational fishing mortality can have a major impact on coastal fish populations, bringing recreational fishers into conflict with commercial fisheries. This article reviews exclusion zones for commercial fishing, or ‘recreational fishing areas’ as a solution to the conflict between commercial and recreational fisheries. Recently designated recreational fishing areas in the state of Queensland, Australia are examined as a case-study. The goal of recreational fishing areas is to enhance recreational fishing and provide economic opportunities through charter fishing. However, recently designated recreational fishing areas in Queensland have not been thoroughly assessed for their social, economic and environmental impacts and they are not integrated within existing management frameworks for fisheries. The designation of recreational fishing areas is thus a shift away from evidence-based management in Queensland's fisheries and has likely occurred solely for political reasons – there are more voters in the recreational fishery than commercial fishery. In Queensland, excluding commercial fishing on its own is unlikely to result in long-term benefits to recreational fisheries because recreational harvest is a major component of fish harvest for some key species and there is no legislated limit to recreational harvest. Current political attention on recreational fishing areas provides an opportunity for fisheries managers, politicians, conservation groups and the public to discuss what is needed to manage sustainable coastal fisheries. In particular, recreational fishing areas need to be combined with efforts to enhance stewardship among recreational fishers if they are to be successful in the long-term.     

An assessment of the recreational fishery in the St Lucia estuarine system,KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

St Lucia is one of the largest estuarine systems in Africa, and attracts thousands of anglers each year. Catchcard data from the National Marine Linefish System for the years 1986–1999 were analysed to determine catch composition, catch per unit effort (cpue) and seasonality of catches by recreational anglers. Because not all anglers completed catch cards, estimates of total catch were made using additional data on the number of private boat outings, the number of boat trailers at boat slipways and the number of boats recorded entering the campsite gates during 1992 and 1993. In all, 27 fish families, constituting 55 species, were recorded by recreational anglers. Dusky kob Argyrosomus japonicus, spotted grunter Pomadasys commersonnii, perch Acanthopagrus berda, Natal stumpnose Rhabdosargus sarba, springer Elops machnata and mini-kob Johnius dorsalis were the most prominent species caught in terms of numbers and mass. Catch rates expressed numerically (fish angler^?1 h^?1) peaked during the summer and early winter. However, in terms of mass, catch rates peaked during late winter and spring, when there were increased landings of large dusky kob. Fluctuations in cpue were linked to salinity and estuary mouth conditions (i.e. mouth closure). Despite annual fluctuations in cpue, regression analysis revealed an overall downward trend for the dominant species (dusky kob and spotted grunter) and a gradual increase for stumpnose, perch and springer, but with the exception of stumpnose, these trends were not significant. Socio-economic aspects of the fishery were also investigated by conducting an independent boat-angler survey. The value of the recreational fishery, in terms of accommodation and direct angler expenditure, was estimated to be in the region of R9 million during 1992. Angler attitudes towards fishing regulations were positive and anglers generally had a good knowledge of the regulations for target species. Based on this assessment, a number of suggestions are made regarding the future management of the recreational fishery at St Lucia.     

When plenty is not enough: an assessment of the white stumpnose (Rhabdosargus globiceps) fishery of Saldanha Bay,South Africa

White stumpnose Rhabdosargus globiceps is the main target of the linefishery in Saldanha Bay. Increased fishing pressure over the last three decades, particularly by the recreational sector, has led to concerns regarding sustainability of the local white stumpnose stock. The fishery was exceptionally productive between 2006 and 2008, with an estimated annual catch of 141.2 tonnes (t). Only 3% of boat outings surveyed were commercial boats targeting white stumpnose, yet this sector accounted for 39.3 t (31%) of the average annual catch. The recreational boat sector accounted for most of the catch (70.0 t), and the recreational shore sector the least (31.9 t). Commercial boat catch per unit effort (CPUE; 3.7 fish angler^–1 h^–1) was more than 10 times that of recreational boats (0.3 fish angler^–1 h^–1). White stumpnose catch length-frequency differed significantly (p < 0.01) between the fishing sectors, with the commercial sector retaining larger fish (34.7 cm [SD 5.9]) than the recreational boat (33.9 cm [SD 5.9]) and shore (30.4 cm [SD 5.8]) sectors. A decline in commercial CPUE (2000–2015) of approximately 40% and a concomitant severe decline (>95%) in survey data for juvenile white stumpnose CPUE (2007–2016) indicate that the current rate of exploitation is not sustainable. Recovery of the white stumpnose stock will require a decrease in fishing mortality. Possible management regulations include sector-specific effort limitations, extending the ‘no take’ marine protected area, reducing the recreational-sector bag limit to 5 fish person^–1 day^–1, implementing a commercial-sector bag limit, and increasing the minimum size limit to 30 cm TL.     

How will climate change alter fishery governanceʔ Insights from seven international case studies

We examine the implications of climate change for fishery governance using seven international fishery case studies in low, mid and high latitudes, including eastern Australia, the western Pacific Ocean, Alaska, west coast United States, Hawaii, west coast Canada and France. Climate change adds uncertainty about fish stock productivity, migratory patterns, trophic interactions and vulnerability of fish populations to fishing pressure.     

The role of archaeological and cultural-historical records in long-range coastal fisheries resources management strategies and policies in the Pacific Islands

The usefulness of conventional fisheries science for long-term fisheries management and policies in the resource-poor islands of the Pacific is very limited. Fishery managers can, however, make use of such alternative sources of information as archaeological and historical data to develop fishery management initiatives. Most Pacific Islands were settled by humans over the last three millennia, although human settlement in Western Melanesia dates from the late Pleistocene, a period of about 40 millennia. Archaeological studies over the past half-century contain information on the long-term subsistence exploitation of fish and invertebrates from nearshore coral reefs and lagoons. Molluscs appear to have been a very important food source for early human colonists in the Pacific Islands, but declines in abundance through harvest pressure and environmental changes forced a greater reliance on fin-fish capture and on agriculture. There is no firm evidence from the archaeological record to suggest that long-term subsistence exploitation of reef fish populations has had any serious negative effects on abundance or structure of reef fish communities. Sources for more recent historical information are also exemplified and briefly examined for their usefulness in assessing the impacts of commercial fishing. It is argued that fishery managers who adopt a data-less approach to fishery management could profitably use these sources of information to enrich their assessment of the impacts of various management scenarios.     

Fishing rights and small communities: Alaska halibut IFQ transfer patterns

In the Alaska halibut individual fishing quota (IFQ) fishery, small remote fishing communities (SRFCs) have disproportionately lost fishing rights. Our analysis of quota market participation from 1995 to 1999 confirms that SRFC residents are more likely to sell than buy quota. Alaska Native heritage is another important predictor of quota market behavior. Residents of Alaska Native villages have an increased likelihood of selling quota. Loss of fisheries participation in small indigenous communities can be an unintended consequence of quota systems. Mitigation measures should take into account the social factors that can lead to such a redistribution of fishing rights in privatized access fisheries.     

Considering community allocations: Power and the politics of enclosure in the Gulf of Alaska

In 2012, the North Pacific Fishery Management Council initiated the process of designing a new management structure for the Gulf of Alaska trawl groundfish fleet. The new program is currently structured as a catch share program and driven by the need to end the ‘race for fish’ and provide the trawl fleet with the tools to reduce bycatch. To date much of the discussion among policy makers and stakeholders has centered on community protection measures and how best to avoid the negative social and economic impacts of catch share programs including impacts to crew, consolidation and the flight of quota and resource wealth from Gulf of Alaska fishery dependent communities. This paper examines how community protection measures related to the distribution of benefits and access to fishery resources are considered and challenged in the North Pacific today. Special attention is given to the ongoing debate surrounding the potential inclusion of an initial allocation to place-based Gulf of Alaska communities via a Community Fishing Association. As part of this effort, this paper examines the political space and underlying power dynamics in which consideration of alternatives to the commodification of fishing rights occurs.     

Social impacts of a temperate fisheries closure: understanding stakeholders' views

The social dimensions of marine protected areas (MPAs) play an important role in MPA success, yet these social dimensions are little understood. We explore the social impacts arising from the establishment of an MPA using Lyme Bay (south west England) as a case study. Through a series of small group semi-structured interviews the social impacts experienced by fishermen (mobile and static gear), recreational users (divers and sea anglers) and recreation service providers (charter boat and dive businesses) were explored. The social impacts expressed varied according to activity in which the stakeholder group engaged. Negative themes included lengthening fishing trips, tension and conflict, fishermen identity, equity and uncertainty in the long-term. Positive themes included improved experiences for both commercial fishermen and recreational users, and expectations for long-term benefits. These impacts need to be understood because they influence stakeholder behaviour. Failure to interpret stakeholder responses may lead to poor decision-making and worsening stakeholder relations. These findings have implications for the success of the MPA in Lyme Bay, but also for the future network of marine conservation zones around the UK. Any assessment of MPA impacts must therefore identify social as well as economic and environmental change.     

Characterisation of the recreational fishery for southern rock lobster,Jasus edwardsii,in Tasmania,Australia: Implications for management

Southern rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) support significant commercial and recreational fisheries in Tasmania, Australia. Since the mid 1990s the number of persons holding recreational lobster licences increased by over 80%, with c. 15 500 persons licensed in 2002/03. Assessment of the recreational fishery has been undertaken periodically since 1996 using a telephone‐diary survey method. The fishery was concentrated off the south‐east and east coasts of Tasmania and characterised by strong seasonality in catch and effort, which peaked markedly early in the fishing year (November‐January). Although pots were the most popular fishing method, daily catch rates by divers were more than double those for pots. Divers selectively harvested larger lobsters than those taken by pots and more frequently attained the daily bag limit of 5 lobsters. The estimated recreational harvest increased significantly since 1996/97 and in 2002/03 effectively reached a management trigger level of 10% of the total allowable commercial catch, flagging a review of recreational management arrangements.     

An operational satellite remote sensing system for ocean fishery

Ocean environmental information is very important to supporting the fishermen in fishing and satellite remote sensing technology can provide it in large scale and in near real-time. Ocean fishery locations are always far away beyond the coverage of the satellite data received by a land-based satellite receiving station. A nice idea is to install the satellite ground station on a fishing boat. When the boat moves to a fishery location, the station can receive the satellite data to cover the fishery areas. One satellite remote sensing system was once installed in a fishing boat and served fishing in the North Pacific fishery areas when the boat stayed there. The system can provide some oceanic environmental charts such as sea surface temperature (SST) and relevant derived products which are in most popular use in fishery industry. The accuracy of SST is the most important and affects the performance of the operational system, which is found to be dissatisfactory. Many factors affect the accuracy of SST and it is difficult to increase the accuracy by SST retrieval algorithms and clouds detection technology. A new technology of temperature error control is developed to detect the abnormity of satellite-measured SST. The performance of the technology is evaluated to change the temperature bias from-3.04 to 0.05 ℃ and the root mean square (RMS) from 5.71 to 1.75 ℃. It is suitable for employing in an operational satellite-measured SST system and improves the performance of the system in fishery applications. The system has been running for 3 a and proved to be very useful in fishing. It can help to locate the candidates of the fishery areas and monitor the typhoon which is very dangerous to the safety of fishing boats.     

An economic comparison of the commercial and recreational linefisheries in Namibia

The most important Namibian linefish species, the silver kob Argyrosomus inodorus, is currently heavily exploited, and in order to ensure its survival catch restrictions are being introduced. However, kob are exploit ed oth by recreational anglers and by commercial vessels, and it is important to examine the economics of these fisheries in order to determine where catch restrictions will do the least harm to the economy. Data from a survey of commercial fishing vessels are compared with results from earlier surveys of recreational anglers to determine economic values and impacts from both fisheries. The economic benefits are shown to be greatest in recreational angling, less in commercial fishing by large vessels and least in commercial skiboat fishing. This sudy also shows that catch restrictions would do less harm to the economy if applied to the commercial linefishing sector rather than to recreational angling.     

Fish harvest tags: An alternative management approach for recreational fisheries in the US Gulf of Mexico

This paper explores the potential adaptation of harvest tags to the Gulf of Mexico recreational reef fish fishery. The discussion addresses conceptual, theoretical, and practical issues surrounding the application of harvest tags, as well as challenges and opportunities related to the design of tag programs. A review of hunting and fishing tag programs around the world and analysis of Gulf recreational fisheries suggests that tags have the potential to improve control over total catches, increase economic benefits and provide better information for fishery management. Results also provide insight into potential use of fish tags in large-scale recreational fisheries nationwide.     

Fishing access agreements and harvesting decisions of host and distant water fishing nations

The declaration of exclusive economic zones (EEZs) granted coastal states sovereign rights over the marine resources in their EEZs and enabled developing coastal states to legally charge access fees to distant water fishing (DWF) nations for access to the resources in these waters. Despite the potential for economic gains, however, the ability of coastal states to benefit from the granting of sovereign rights and to ensure the sustainable use of their fisheries resources depends on how domestic fishing effort responds to the harvesting decisions of the DWF nations. We develop a stylized bioeconomic model to explore the change in fishing behavior of host and DWF nations when the two nations enter into an access agreement with varying levels of access fee. We further conduct an econometric analysis of changes in Pacific island nations’ harvesting behavior in response to the harvest decisions of DWF nations using data from the Western and Central Pacific tuna fishery. Our model results show that there is a range of variable access payment levels over which the host nation substitutes benefits from its domestic fishing activity with access payments from the DWF nation and that setting fees in this range can create a trap whereby host nations are forced to trade-off receiving a fair return to their fishery resources through access fees and retaining their own active fleet capacity. Our empirical analysis further shows a gradual shift in the way in which Pacific island host nations responded to the harvest decision of DWF nations as a result of the creation of the 200-nautical-mile EEZ.     

Sharing the catch or catching the shares: Catch shares for the western Pacific region?

The applicability of catch shares programs is evaluated for the various fisheries of the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council region in each of the archipelagoes. Implementation of Catch Shares programs in the region is problematic, but would require better data to be done fairly and equitably. Catch shares are currently under initial consideration for the Hawaii and American Samoa longline fisheries and the Hawaii Deep 7 bottomfish fishery. It is argued that current conditions in all the other small boat fisheries in the region make them inappropriate for catch shares management. Overfishing and the “race for fish” are not yet an issue for these fisheries and some are underdeveloped. Catch share programs can cause significant negative social consequences for Western Pacific communities because data on fishermen's participation, catch histories, and motivations to fish for cultural needs is not adequate for any initial allocation scheme to be developed equitably. The prevailing Western Pacific cultural value of sharing the fish by gifting portions, sharing the catch widely and sharing fishing opportunities widely is in clear conflict with the individualized commercial profit motive philosophy of fisheries that are appropriate for catch shares. The small boat fisheries lack adequate monitoring and enforcement, and do not have a total allowable catch or quota. Nor do they usually have a demonstrated need for one. Preliminary community outreach by Council staff and community discussion of catch shares shows a general lack of information yet a potential for strong resistance to the imposition of catch shares.     

The potential compatibility of offshore wind power and fisheries: An example using bluefin tuna in the Adriatic Sea

Given the increasing competition for marine resources, regulatory strategies that benefit multiple stakeholders are increasingly important. Offshore wind power generating facilities are becoming more common in the marine environment and alter the characteristics of the fisheries in the surrounding area. Floating wind turbines can act as fish aggregating devices (FAD), thereby increasing the catchability for some species. Many marine recreational fisheries are open access without effort restrictions; therefore, control of total harvest is difficult. Creating a limited entry recreational fishery and excluding commercial fishing from the area surrounding offshore wind turbines may aid in controlling total harvest and may benefit several important stakeholder groups: (1) recreational and commercial fishermen in terms of higher recreational catch rates and potentially higher overall yield, (2) fisheries managers in terms of more precise control of recreational fisheries harvest, and (3) owners of offshore wind power facilities in terms of reduced risk of damage to infrastructure due to fishing activity. We discuss the compatibility of wind power facilities and fisheries, conditions conducive to this compatibility, and provide an example from a proposed offshore wind power facility in the Adriatic Sea and its potential to affect the fisheries management there, particularly for bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus).     

Export market influence on the development of the Pacific shrimp fishery of Sonora,Mexico

The Pacific shrimp fishery is the most economically important and ecologically impactful fishery in Mexico. Strong export markets have had a tremendous influence on the technological development and structure of this fishery. This article describes the historical development, current status, ecological impacts and management of the open ocean trawling component of the shrimp fishery in the Sonoran waters of the Gulf of California. We trace the economic factors influencing the development of the Mexican Pacific trawler-based shrimp fishery, with a focus on the port of Guaymas, Sonora, and summarize the events leading to the current overcapitalized and inefficient state of that fishery. The Sonoran shrimp fishery is characterized by high rates of by-catch and a decline in catch per boat trends. A review of economic factors indicates that the decision-making process in this fishery is driven by export markets and does not adequately consider the local ecosystems and fishing communities impacted by shrimp trawling. Management priorities for the fishery include fleet size reduction, habitat protection and alternative technology development. Successful management depends on the participation of powerful export–import companies, along side producers, government resource management agencies, NGOs and scientists. This paper describes recent efforts in collaborative management and calls for the expansion of these efforts.     

The money side of livelihoods: Economics of an unregulated small-scale Indonesian sea cucumber fishery in the Timor Sea

Fishers from several ethnic groups on islands in eastern Indonesia seasonally fish for sea cucumbers at Scott Reef in Australia's Exclusive Economic Zone in the Timor Sea. Despite evidence suggesting that sea cucumbers are severely over-exploited fishers continue to voyage to the reef. How the traditional fishery operates under this condition and more broadly what economic drivers cause fishers to make the long and arduous voyage is vital to understanding this small-scale fishery and developing appropriate strategies for management. This study is the first to investigate these dynamic livelihood aspects using semi-structured interviews and fishers’ voluntarily recorded data on their catches, costs of fishing and the sales of those catches and income received over a six year period. The study demonstrated that costs, borrowings, and revenues differed between crews, leading to widely varying profits. Nevertheless, every crew that recorded the sale of their catches made a profit. Rapidly appreciating prices for their sea cucumber harvest, predominantly comprising low value species, was critical to maintaining the fishery's profitability. The income earned by some crews and boat owners were far greater than those potentially available to them through other livelihood strategies such as agriculture, coastal fisheries or trade opportunities. This study also suggests the depletion of high value sea cucumber species is ongoing. This Indonesian sea cucumber fishery at Scott Reef illustrates the linkages between stock sustainability, fishers’ livelihood outcomes, and the burgeoning Asian demand for sea cucumbers and the findings can inform the current management discourse on this small-scale transboundary fishery.