Public perceptions of sharks: Gathering support for shark conservation

With increasing evidence of the destructive impacts of human activities on the ocean there is a growing call for stronger public engagement in marine governance. An understanding of marine issues and pro-environmental values are key elements that influence an individual׳s engagement in conservation and pro-environmental behaviour. This paper presents a study on public perceptions of sharks and shark conservation in the UK. The study investigated knowledge of and attitudes towards sharks of a group of individuals with a clear interest in the marine environment, as well as possible factors that might influence their perceptions of sharks, in order to make recommendations on how to foster engagement in shark conservation. The key finding was that important prerequisites for engagement in shark conservation exist among parts of the UK public. However, this does not seem to be enough to motivate actual engagement. The study discusses a number of specific challenges with regard to sharks which might be influencing the way in which society connects to shark related issues. It concludes with priority recommendations for further investigation into potential catalysts for public engagement in shark conservation.     

Attitudes and perceptions influence recreational angler support for shark conservation and fisheries sustainability

Despite the perilous status of many shark populations, rallying support for their conservation has been challenging, due in part to both long held negative perceptions and desire for shark fisheries. Recreational anglers are often advocates of conservation and can act as valuable partners with resource managers in developing fisheries management and conservation strategies. However, understanding their attitudes and perceptions, particularly towards resource status and management, is essential to developing successful management strategies and predicting outcomes. As a case study for assessing the complex challenges of sustainable shark fisheries, Florida recreational anglers were surveyed to understand how attitudes and perceptions influenced their willingness to donate for shark 1) conservation and protection or 2) fisheries sustainability. Overall, recreational angler willingness to donate was 25.5%, but attitudes and perceptions helped explain dramatic divides. For instance, willingness to donate was only 6% among the subset of anglers that perceived a growing large coastal shark population as a threat to recreational fishing opportunities. Highest support for shark conservation was shown by anglers who value seeing sharks in the wild (41.4%), and even more so among individuals who occasionally target sharks while fishing recreationally (65.8%). Pervasive among anglers unwilling to donate was a perception that shark populations were increasing, and thus not in need of further protection. These findings illustrate attitudes and perceptions that challenge shark conservation and fisheries management, as well as the critical importance of engaging anglers when developing strategies that rely on the recreational angling community for support.     

Increased knowledge about sharks increases public concern about their conservation

Gaining support for shark conservation has been extremely difficult due to the negative preconceived notions the general public holds toward sharks. In order to achieve public support for conservation initiatives the factors that will change an individual’s attitude and behavior toward sharks must first be determined. Using structured questionnaire interviews (n=186), indices were created that rated an individual’s knowledge, attitude, and potential behavior toward sharks and shark conservation. Generally public knowledge levels about sharks were low. However, people with more knowledge pertaining specifically about sharks had potential behaviors more supportive of their conservation. Therefore, it would seem that increases in public knowledge on sharks would help gain support for shark conservation. Males, members of environmental groups, and viewers of shark documentaries and “Shark Week” all showed significantly higher levels of knowledge about sharks. The media (such as “Shark Week” ) can play a significant role in promoting conservation, but unfortunately media coverage of sharks has been controversial recently with the airing of several non-factual, fake documentaries. To promote shark conservation the media’s message has to be unbiased, non-sensationalized, and accurate to ensure people are receiving the information necessary to build strong pro-shark conservation behaviors.     

Keeping the lead: How to strengthen shark conservation and management policies in Canada

Internationally, shark conservation is now being recognized as a major environmental challenge, but management efforts to halt the overexploitation of sharks have lagged behind. This review examines the state of knowledge for shark species in Canadian waters and analyzes the role of existing management and legislation in ensuring shark conservation. Despite Canada's early leadership, the present management framework reveals major shortcomings with regard to legal protection, bycatch and finning regulations. These problems are not unique to Canada but illustrate broader issues pertaining to the global management of endangered fish species. To strengthen the conservation and management of sharks, this paper recommends a set of key policies and management priorities, which exemplify proper precautionary management of endangered shark species in Canada and could serve as a blueprint for improving conservation efforts internationally. A structured approach for grading progress in shark conservation efforts against best practices is also presented and could be used as a goalpost elsewhere.     

Actions speak louder than words: Tournament angling as an avenue to promote best practice for pelagic shark fishing

Social research can aid in understanding the behaviour of the general public or stakeholders towards natural resources. In the case of recreational fishing, social research aids in integrating anglers' knowledge and attitudes into management frameworks to increase the likelihood of the uptake of new management regulations. Tournament anglers were surveyed at game fishing competitions throughout New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia between February 2012 and May 2013 to investigate their general beliefs around sharks and their behaviours when targeting pelagic sharks. Over half (55%) of the anglers interviewed practised catch and release of pelagic sharks. Of those, almost all (98%) asserted that they attempt to release sharks in good condition, but a large percentage of anglers (48%) did not use circle hooks that have been shown to increase post-release survival. Results showing some concordance between angler's beliefs and behaviours when targeting pelagic sharks suggest that anglers are cognisant of the functional role of sharks in the ecosystem and would be open to recommendations ensuring the long-term sustainability of recreational fisheries targeting pelagic sharks.     

Shark interactions in pelagic longline fisheries

Substantial ecological, economic and social problems result from shark interactions in pelagic longline fisheries. Improved understanding of industry attitudes and practices towards shark interactions assists with managing these problems. Information on fisher knowledge and new strategies for shark avoidance may benefit sharks and fishers. A study of 12 pelagic longline fisheries from eight countries shows that incentives to avoid sharks vary along a continuum, based on whether sharks represent an economic disadvantage or advantage. Shark avoidance practices are limited, including avoiding certain areas, moving when shark interaction rates are high, using fish instead of squid for bait and deeper setting. Some conventionally employed fishing gear and methods used to target non-shark species contribute to shark avoidance. Shark repellents hold promise; more research and development is needed. Development of specifically designed equipment to discard sharks could improve shark post release survival prospects, reduce gear loss and improve crew safety. With expanding exploitation of sharks for fins and meat, improved data collection, monitoring and precautionary shark management measures are needed to ensure that shark fishing mortality levels are sustainable.     

The International Plan of Action for Sharks: How does national implementation measure up?

Various species of sharks, skates, and rays continue to decline globally, demonstrating a greater need for effective conservation measures. In 1999 the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) developed comprehensive guidelines in its International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-sharks), which was followed by corresponding national plans in some nations. A case study of national implementation is presented here. Specifically, progress under Canada's National Plan of Action for Sharks (NPOA-sharks) is reviewed, against its stated goals, against Australia's NPOA, and against the original FAO guidelines. For comprehensiveness, additional management and conservation measures for sharks, as well as stakeholder input from the first Atlantic Shark Forum is provided. Although Canada is recognized as a leader in shark management, as it was one of the first countries to develop an NPOA, it has not effectively adopted the FAO's principles and guidelines. The plan lacks set timelines, priorities, and action plans to mitigate threats to sharks, and contains no performance indicators. Additionally, the plan neglects to identify priority species and engage stakeholders, and cannot be directly linked to management measures. To advance the revision of this plan (as well as other NPOAs), a stepwise process is recommended that includes (i) stakeholder engagement and development of a shark assessment report (SAR) (ii) addressing all IPOA objectives, while prioritizing issues arising from the SAR, and (iii) implementations of actions, targets, and timelines that are reviewed every four years. Key policy items to advance Canada's role in shark conservation and management are also presented. These include actions to improve data collection and research, management, and education, as well as coordination with stakeholders. In conclusion,major changes are needed to the existing NPOA to be fully effective and accountable. Likewise, the abovementioned measures may help guide more proactive plans in nations that have not yet established an NPOA.     

Transforming shark hazard policy: Learning from ocean-users and shark encounter in Western Australia

Killing sharks is a popular strategy for reducing risk for beach-goers and ocean-users. But the effectiveness of kill-based strategies is debated and the ecological and economic costs are high. In Western Australia the state government introduced new policy in 2012 in response to shark-related fatalities, to track, catch and destroy sharks deemed to pose an ‘imminent threat’ to beach-goers. This paper reports on a survey of Western Australia-based ocean-users, and pursues two aims: to develop an understanding of the experiences of ocean-users in encountering sharks; and to learn about the attitudes of ocean-users towards shark hazard management. The research finds that people encounter sharks often, without harm, and that most ocean-users adapt their practices in order to reduce personal risk. The majority of ocean-users oppose the kill-based elements of the new policy, and kill-based shark hazard management strategies more broadly. Rather, ocean-users strongly support further research and education focusing on shark behaviour and shark deterrents, and approaches that enable people to understand and accept risks associated with ocean use. These findings present opportunity to refocus debates about shark hazard management on non-lethal strategies in concert with better educating publics so they can make informed decisions about their ocean-based activities.     

Shark bites and public attitudes: Policy implications from the first before and after shark bite survey

Public feelings toward sharks are expected to grow negatively following shark bites on humans. Media and government responses are often predicated on this presumptive emotional response; however, there have been no published data on attitudes toward sharks following shark bite incidents. This study shows that levels of “pride” in white shark populations in the absence of an incident remained steady after a shark bite occurred. This was consistent across response areas regarding other marine life and “confidence” in beach safety programs. Results are based on a pilot survey conducted in the Cape Town beach suburbs of Fish Hoek and Muizenberg before and after a shark bite at Fish Hoek beach. The study found no statistical significance between survey responses and the occurrence of the shark bite incident. The results indicate a previously undocumented level of public sophistication following these events. This data challenges the underlying basis of policy responses to shark bites and suggests that new considerations of public knowledge, endemic value and causal narratives should be incorporated into decision making.     

Review of shark legislation in Canada as a conservation tool

Sharks are threatened from overfishing due to their life cycle biology, and unsustainably high catch rates to supply fins for shark fin soup. Canada, a leader in shark conservation uses numerous legislative tools to help conserve sharks. These tools include international treaty obligations under the Northeastern Atlantic Fisheries Organization [NAFO] and the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna [ICCAT], as well as national and provincial legislation including the Fisheries Act, Pacific and Atlantic Fisheries Regulations, and Coastal Fisheries Protection Act. Through the use of these legislative tools Canada has successfully banned shark finning in its waters, and implemented closed seasons, gear restrictions, and species restrictions to help manage shark populations. However, Canada still allows the sale of shark fin products locally, and allows the exportation of shark fins internationally. In order for Canada to maintain its leadership status Canada must increase legislative protection of sharks by following international best practices, and ban the sale and exportation of shark fin products. This would ensure that Canada does not play a role in global supply or demand of shark fins. Doing so would strengthen Canada's position as a leader in shark conservation, and improve the legislation currently used as a conservation tool.     

Global catches,exploitation rates,and rebuilding options for sharks

Adequate conservation and management of shark populations is becoming increasingly important on a global scale, especially because many species are exceptionally vulnerable to overfishing. Yet, reported catch statistics for sharks are incomplete, and mortality estimates have not been available for sharks as a group. Here, the global catch and mortality of sharks from reported and unreported landings, discards, and shark finning are being estimated at 1.44 million metric tons for the year 2000, and at only slightly less in 2010 (1.41 million tons). Based on an analysis of average shark weights, this translates into a total annual mortality estimate of about 100 million sharks in 2000, and about 97 million sharks in 2010, with a total range of possible values between 63 and 273 million sharks per year. Further, the exploitation rate for sharks as a group was calculated by dividing two independent mortality estimates by an estimate of total global biomass. As an alternative approach, exploitation rates for individual shark populations were compiled and averaged from stock assessments and other published sources. The resulting three independent estimates of the average exploitation rate ranged between 6.4% and 7.9% of sharks killed per year. This exceeds the average rebound rate for many shark populations, estimated from the life history information on 62 shark species (rebound rates averaged 4.9% per year), and explains the ongoing declines in most populations for which data exist. The consequences of these unsustainable catch and mortality rates for marine ecosystems could be substantial. Global total shark mortality, therefore, needs to be reduced drastically in order to rebuild depleted populations and restore marine ecosystems with functional top predators.     

The role of law in shark-based eco-tourism: Lessons from Australia

Marine-based tourism offers opportunities for economic, educational and environmental benefits but is not without risks to people, animals and the environment. If the benefits of this sector are to be harnessed it will require an increasing focus upon law and policy governing the industry. This is particularly the case for shark eco-tourism, which can be an important conservation tool for these species. Australia has a longstanding history of tourism involving whale sharks and great white sharks and an examination of Australian law and policy in shark eco-tourism provides a powerful case study. This article identifies lessons that may be learnt from Australian shark eco-tourism as a first step towards identification of best practice legal strategies that both support the industry and ensure environmental integrity.     

White sharks Carcharodon carcharias at Bird Island,Algoa Bay,South Africa

We present the first quantitative study of the occurrence, size and sex of white sharks Carcharodon carcharias at Bird Island, Algoa Bay. Twenty-two boat trips were made to Bird Island between November 2009 and October 2011 to chum for sharks. A total of 53 sharks was observed over the study period, ranging in size from 1.5 to 4.5 m total length (TL) and with the majority (60.3%) being <3 m TL. The sex ratio of sharks for which sex could be determined was not significantly different from unity. In both study years, sharks were present only in the winter between April and November with a maximum of 1.2 sharks sighted per hour. A zero-altered model, comprising a logistic regression to model presence/absence and a log-normal generalised linear model for abundance, showed that season explained the presence of sharks, peaking in mid-July, with abundance being significantly higher with higher barometric pressure. This study identified Bird Island as an important white shark aggregation site on the east coast of South Africa. These data are crucial not only to improve our understanding of white shark seasonal distribution and biology, but also for the long-term management and conservation of the species in South Africa.     

A United States shark fin ban would undermine sustainable shark fisheries

A proposed nationwide ban on the sale of shark fins within the United States would undermine sustainable shark fisheries, would have little effect on global shark mortality, and would perpetuate the misconception that the shark fin trade is the only threat facing sharks. Instead, placing a priority on policies focusing on sustainable shark fisheries management is preferred for meeting the goals of shark conservation.     

The case for an international commission for the conservation and management of sharks (ICCMS)

The current rate of shark global exploitation and mortality is arguably so high under current management regimes that unless a renewed initiative is undertaken some species of shark will become effectively extinct. Current efforts to sustainably manage shark mortality are driven primarily by domestic laws in a few countries, big international non-governmental organizations (BINGOs) promoting environmental laws in the countries or regions where they exist, a handful of regional fisheries management organizations (e.g., IATTC and ICCAT), and inter-governmental organizations such as CITES. The absence of enforcement capability is often argued as the critical component in the failure to protect sharks from overexploitation. The remedy advanced here goes far beyond the need for stepped up enforcement, and calls for the creation of an entirely new international management regime, the International Commission for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (ICCMS). Such an agency could learn from the experiences of management bodies tasked with conservation of species biologically similar to sharks, such as the International Whaling Commission (IWC), to improve its efficacy. Critics have identified many organizational flaws that reduced the IWC’s effectiveness during its earliest years. Some of those flaws are examined here and remedies are suggested that an ICCMS could use to create a more effective management regime. The life histories of elasmobranches and large whales are compared to illustrate their similarities as a biological foundation for the selection of the IWC as a model.     

福建沿海鲸鲨时空分布初探及保护对策

搁浅、误捕和救助记录是研究野生动物分布和获取其基本生物学数据的重要来源,尤其是对那些缺少系统性野外调查的物种。本研究收集了福建沿海2006—2019年间鲸鲨（Rhincodon typus）的搁浅、误捕和救助记录,初步探讨福建沿海鲸鲨的时空分布情况,并提出相应的保护对策。共收集福建沿海鲸鲨搁浅、误捕和救助记录30例,包括搁浅10例、误捕18例和救助2例,其中福州鲸鲨记录大部分在平潭岛附近,这可能与平潭海域上升流带来的丰富生物资源有关;所有记录中有28例（93.3%）发生在6—10月,表明夏秋季可能是鲸鲨在福建沿海活动的高峰期。此外,有体长记录的22条鲸鲨中,17条（77.3%）为幼年个体,可能是因为幼年鲸鲨偏好在高生产力的近岸海域聚集以获取充足的食物,因此也更容易搁浅或被误捕。较多的误捕记录（60.0％）提示渔业活动对鲸鲨有较大威胁。因此,建议建立全省甚至全国性的鲸鲨搁浅误捕数据库,进一步严格和规范渔业管理,改进渔具以降低误捕鲸鲨的概率,加强对公众（特别是渔民）的宣传教育,以更好地保护这一濒危物种。     

On the perceptions and conceptions of tourists with regard to global environmental changes and their consequences for coastal and marine environments: A case study of the northern São Paulo State coast,Brazil

A study on the public׳s perceptions and conceptions of global environmental changes (GECs) is relevant to guide future educational strategies and management actions. The present study aimed to: (1) evaluate coastal tourists׳ conceptions and perceptions of GECs; (2) correlate the conceptions presented by tourists about GECs and their self-declared knowledge; (3) evaluate how these tourists perceive their personal contribution to GECs; and (4) verify the frequency at which the media exposed the tourists to information about the influence of GECs on coastal and marine environments. A structured questionnaire was applied to 183 coastal tourists. There was a weak but significant positive correlation (r²=0.152, p<0.001) between self-declared knowledge and the actual conceptions of tourists about GECs and about the sea. Tourists underestimate their role in GECs, pointing out fewer individual actions that contributed to GECs in the questionnaire than expected. Many tourists declared they had never heard of some subjects related to GECs and coastal environments. This study revealed that coastal tourists are still not well informed about their role in GECs and also on their consequences to the society, thus emphasizing the need of more intensive and effective coastal and marine environmental education strategies.     

Rethinking use and trade of pelagic sharks from Brazil

Brazil currently ranks as the 11th producer and 1st importer of shark meat around the world. Data available from the FAO software FishStatJ along with data from regional sources, such as governmental bulletins, scientific papers, gray literature and internet were revisited to identify the main issues surrounding pelagic shark fisheries, trade and consumption in the largest country in South America. Among the main findings, it was noted that Brazil has not properly collected fishery statistics since 2007, that many species of threatened sharks are freely landed and traded even though it is prohibited by local legislation and/or international recommendations (regional fisheries management organizations). The blue shark (Prionace glauca) is the most frequently recorded shark in the official bulletins and is currently a locally targeted species. Additionally, the significant imports of this species from 23 other countries that also provide fins for Asia has drawn attention in recent decades. Regarding consumption, shark is considered to be low-value seafood compared to more common fish, such as groupers and snappers, and most Brazilians actually do not know that they are eating sharks. At present, the proportion of threatened elasmobranchs (in which sharks are included) in Brazil (33%, of 145 species) exceeds the global rate identified for the group (25%), and, until the present moment, no measure related to the management of species has been implemented. As advice, Brazil urgently needs to restructure its fishery information collection systems, management strategies and to tighten sanitary and labeling regulations for the marketing of fish.     

Coastal residents' literacy about seawater desalination and its impacts on marine ecosystems in California

This article examines coastal residents' awareness and knowledge about impacts of seawater desalination on marine ecosystems Carlsbad, California. The paper explores to what extent sociodemographics, motivational factors, and information use shape public awareness and self-assessed and factual knowledge. Data was collected using a mail survey (n=330) from a random sample of residents in Carlsbad. Both self-assessed and factual knowledge about the desalination plant and its impacts on marine ecosystem were low, with only two of 11 factual questions answered correctly by more than 50% of respondents. Gender, frequency of ocean use, and use of distinct information sources correlated positively with greater factual knowledge. Education, age, time of residency in local community, membership in an NGO, and place attachment to marine areas did not increase factual knowledge. Findings also demonstrate that knowledge shaped attitudes towards the seawater desalination plant as greater knowledge about marine impacts reduced support.