Towards climate adaptation and coastal governance in Ireland: Integrated architecture for effective management?

Coastal environments are susceptible to a range of impacts arising from medium and long-term climate change. However, as Ireland's population and industrial centres are concentrated in coastal locations, Ireland's coastal communities will be particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Therefore, making the best use of existing knowledge to inform the establishment of governance structures capable of facilitating the measures and actions which may soon be required is a national imperative. Coastal communities worldwide have turned to integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) as a process to deliver sustainable development. This paper explores how experience gained from ICZM implementation can be harnessed to inform the development and implementation of climate adaptation policies, with a particular focus on the coastal zone. Using the principles and conceptual basis of Earth System Governance – an emerging approach to analyse complexity of governance under global environmental change – the paper maps the architecture of ICZM and climate governance in Ireland. The research identifies the main barriers to, and opportunities for, integrated application of the two policy domains. Barriers include the fragmentation of governance structures and responsibilities of key stakeholders, a lack of coordinated support for ICZM implementation at the national level, and a relatively weak awareness of the specifics of adaptation at the local level. Opportunities include the availability of expertise gathered from phases of ICZM implementation in Ireland, which encompasses mechanisms for science-policy integration, and invaluable experience of stakeholder participation and interaction. Current political and scientific support at national and EU levels give an additional impetus to climate research and actions which may bring additional opportunities and resources to coastal governance in Ireland.     

Lessons learned from Eastern Africa: the development of policy on ICZM at national and regional levels

Coastal zones of Eastern Africa are endowed with a diversity of life forms and resources which support large populations of coastal communities. The economies of the countries in the region are dependent on these resources in the form of fisheries and coastal forest products, tourism, shipways and coastal facilities such as ports, industries and urban centers.Population growth, especially in coastal urban centers is increasing the demand for coastal and marine resources. In addition, poverty, lack of awareness and inadequate management have resulted in over exploitation of coastal and marine resources, habitat destruction including shoreline erosion as well as marine pollution. The rate of resource depletion and environmental degradation is on the increase. There is an urgent need for instituting management measure that will reverse the current trend.The governments in the region have accepted and are committed to the implementation of Integrated coastal management (ICZM) as an effective mechanism for addressing and resolving the multiplicity of issues experienced in coastal areas through sectoral coordination and collaborative approaches. However, the process has just begun and there are a number of ICZM initiatives in progress at local, national and regional levels. This paper presents the issues of the coastal zone and reviews some of the progress made to date in the implementation of ICZM.     

A contribution to the implementation of ICZM in the Mediterranean developing countries

The purpose of this paper is to assess the level of implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) principles in the Mediterranean developing countries at the moment of signing the protocol on ICZM for the Mediterranean, in the framework of the UNEP Mediterranean Action Plan of the Barcelona Convention. This assessment is based on the results of two advanced seminars on ICZM promoted by the Azahar programme of the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation for the Development (Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation). The contribution of the participants of the seminar, who are representatives of national agencies related with ICZM in different Mediterranean countries, have been collected through a questionnaire including: (i) a ranking of the main coastal sectors and the main coastal issues of each country; (ii) significant initiatives for the sustainable development of the Mediterranean coastal zones; and (iii) the evaluation of the ICZM progress. The state of the coast, the level of implementation of ICZM and the main problems faced to apply it, have been detected for each country. None of the consulted countries have a full implemented integrated coastal zone management, the major problems being: (i) the lack of financial commitment for the implementation of ICZM; (ii) the lack of an assessment and monitoring system; (iii) the lack of knowledge regarding the coastal system; (iv) the lack of qualified human resources; and (v) the lack of public participation and administrative integration strategies based on information. From these conclusions, some recommendations to improve ICZM are also provided. The work presented in this paper is the starting point to assess the evolution and the reference from which ICZM will be improved through the protocol on ICZM for the Mediterranean.     

Integrated coastal zone management towards Indonesia global ocean observing system (INA-GOOS): Review and recommendation

Indonesia as an archipelagos country consisting of more than 17,508 islands has a challenging problem in terms of island management and the provisional ocean services to the coastal community. The population growth (especially in coastal areas) followed by declining natural resources caused by overfishing and overexploitation is one of the biggest concerns both for the central and the local governments in Indonesia. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is one of the attempted solutions to overcome these difficulties, however, it is known to be unsatisfactory even after several programs under ICZM have been developed and implemented. Therefore, further facilitation of ICZM programs is necessary in order to benefit to Indonesian governmental management of their islands, coastal areas and oceans. In doing so, ICZM will also make a significant contribution towards the implementation of the Indonesia Global Ocean Observing System (INA-GOOS). This paper aims to review ICZM activities in Indonesia to obtain a better understanding of, and the need for ICZM implementations in support of their policy, sustainability and decision-making process in the direction of INA-GOOS. It is expected that the ICZM implementations will have a high impact on INA-GOOS programs.     

Media framing of aquaculture

Norway is the world's largest producer of farmed salmon. Aquaculture is the country's second largest export industry and thus vital for employment in coastal areas of Norway. The industry is dependent on public acceptance and good standing in local communities in order to gain access to new sites and to be able to sell its product. Public opinion (and assumptions about public opinion) on aquaculture may influence the industry's framework conditions and policy. Being located in coastal and rural areas, the industry must rely on the media to spread information to the public about the industry. Therefore, the media are an important source of information about farmed salmon, and the way the media present aquaculture issues has an impact on public opinion as well as authorities. This article examines how the aquaculture industry is portrayed in Norwegian newspapers and discusses how media topics and media framing may influence public opinion. The analysis shows that the most frequent topics covered in Norwegian newspapers are connected to the environment, aquaculture industry, and politics, where the concerns about the environment are dominant within the risk frame. The negative images portrayed by the media have a strong agenda-setting force and may skew public opinion to a narrow focus on environmental risks, influencing both the debate's content and the regulators’ increased emphasis on environmental risks. This is strengthened further by the focus on sustainability, where the focus is solely on the dimension of environment, making other sustainability dimensions less prominent in the media coverage.     

Integrated Coastal Zone Management: commitments and developments from an International,European, and United Kingdom perspective

The paper looks at recent developments in Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). It considers the influence of global and international instruments on national policies and it takes the United Kingdom as an illustration of contemporary commitments of a European country to ICZM. It further reflects on how recent initiatives may change the perception of the role of coastal sciences and management in decision making. It looks at the entanglement of legal frameworks at various levels, including the role of government departments and agencies and non-governmental organisations (NGOs). NGOs are considered, here, as important agents on the international stage. The availability and the reliability of scientific information are recognised to be the critical factor, which can influence public opinion. In particular, it is shown that there is a great need for ecological interdisciplinary studies, which would provide material for rational action. Despite new policies, it is made clear that concrete actions are still to be taken in order to achieve sustainable development and avoid natural resources destruction or degradation. The need for a holistic approach to ICZM, including education and the dissemination of scientific information, is emphasised.     

ICZM and coastal defence perception by beach users: Lessons from the Mediterranean coastal area

Member States of the European Union and the Mediterranean Regional Sea need to elaborate national strategies for coastal management according to ICZM principles and to undertake national stock-taking, which must consider major actors, laws and institutions influencing the management of their national coastal zone. However, different approaches to coastal management and defence and various degrees of development and implementation of national ICZM strategies can be found. The research presented in this article aims to analyze the different situations and to contribute to the further development of a common approach in terms of methodology to establish stakeholder and users participation in ICZM. An extensive survey was conducted in five pilot sites along the European Mediterranean coastal zone (Greece, Italy and France) show beach visitors’ perception of ICZM, coastal erosion and coastal defence systems, and beach visitors’ Willingness To Pay (WTP) for beach defence. The survey yielded important information for coastal and beach managers. Surprisingly, the level of awareness about generic Coastal Zone Management was found to be rather low in all regions except Riccione Southern beach, Emilia-Romagna Region. In the Languedoc-Roussillon Region, this is justified by the fact that most of the respondents were not local people or beach visitors (other than recreational day-visitors). As regards coastal erosion it appears significant that, despite the lack of awareness demonstrated overall by stakeholders in the Region of East Macedonia and Thrace, visitors respond very positively to definitions and show awareness of the erosion process in their coastal system. In conclusion, in order to raise public awareness about ICZM, erosion and coastal defence systems, it is suggested that education, training and public awareness should be promoted as well as identification of local needs for the implementation of specific demand-driven studies.     

Balancing aquaculture with other coastal interests: A study of regional planning as a tool for ICZM in Norway

Coastal zone planning at regional level has been introduced in Norway to deal with the problems of integration that coastal zone planning at municipal level has not been able to solve. In particular, this relates to coordination between the relevant sectors at regional level. The present article discusses the effects of different planning strategies at regional (county) level in terms of achieving integration between the interests of the aquaculture industry with those of other coastal interests. The findings are based on a study comparing the experiences in three counties. The authors argue that the individual county's choice of planning strategy influence the way in which the integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is carried out. The more active the county authorities have been as a meta-governor in the planning and implementation processes, the higher level of integration is achieved.     

Implementing Integrated Coastal Zone Management in a national policy vacuum: Local case studies from Ireland

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is widely advocated at all levels of governance as a means of delivering sustainable development in coastal areas. This paper explores the status and characteristics of various forms of ICZM at the local level given that it is at this level that most ICZM activity currently takes place. In this context, local level ICZM includes agency-led initiatives, local pilot projects and bottom-up approaches. Providing empirical evidence about the relative strengths and weaknesses of these various models for local delivery, this paper presents an overview, critique of and lessons learned from approaches in Ireland, where there is no over-arching national coastal management policy to provide any steer for management. The potential for local government involvement in these approaches is emphasised, particularly in bottom-up and local projects which foster strengthened management capacity within local government with limited resource implications. Whilst the paper highlights difficult jurisdictional issues in the Irish context, the potential for improved coastal management, through continued local government involvement in ICZM networks and local projects, as well as through the implementation of the European Integrated Maritime Policy and Marine Strategy Framework Directive, is outlined.     

我国海岸带综合管理制度、实践及存在问题

海岸带综合管理作为沿海区域实现可持续发展目标的重要途径,对沿海地区科学有效地利用海岸带资源具有重要意义。本文从国家、省、市三个层面分析了我国当前海岸带综合管理制度现状和实践状况,提出了在海岸带综合管理立法缺失、权属不清、海陆统筹不能兼顾、海岸带规划与评价不足、管理技术亟待升级、海岸带基础数据尚不完备等制度方面存在的问题;基于国内外对海岸带综合管理的经验和实践,从加快海岸带立法、完善海岸带规划、协调综合管理、兼顾陆海统筹、提升管理技术、加强管理效果评价以及夯实基础信息等方面提出海岸带综合管理制度进一步完善的措施和建议,为进一步提升我国海岸带综合管理工作提供参考。     

The ICZM Balanced Scorecard: A tool for putting integrated coastal zone management into action

Coastal areas are characterised by the choice of performance measures and/or reference points which may be critical in the environmental management process, determining the success of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) plan. The tools for the strategic control of ICZM plans are particularly important, although they are still not widely used at the local level. The following paper proposes the use of the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) method of Kaplan and Norton (1992), which is a holistic management performance tool that can be used by managers to put into action their business strategy. In particular the methodology has focused on the use of a BSC process, inspired by the Niven (2003) approach for public bodies. The BSC suggests the creation of a framework for the strategic assessment of plans and projects based on the Protocol on Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the Mediterranean (Protocol). An analysis of the Protocol has been carried out according to the BSC model, and it shows how it can be integrated with assessment and environmental management tools, such as the Driving forces, Pressures, States, Impacts and Responses (DPSIR) framework. The proposed process has suggested a novel framework for analysing the ICZM plans of coastal managers and stakeholders. The analytical framework facilitates the examination of Drivers and causes of the ICZM strategy, the possible impact on society and coastal communities, the most appropriate measures to achieve the objectives and the practicalities of implementing such measures given the institutional context of where these are developed.     

Practitioner training for building capacity in ICZM

Capacity building has been a much promoted principle of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) since its advent beginning in the 1970’s. Although the concept of capacity building includes human resource development, organizational development and institutional and legal framework development, in practice it has often become focussed on the transfer of technical knowledge and procedures to managers and decision makers. The effect of this is often to emphasise and promote sectoral approaches rather than a holistic one as advocated by ICZM. Experiences gained during the EU Intereg IIIB COREPOINT project led to the development of a training programme that progressively reduced its formal lecture-style content and increased opportunity for discussion and delegate participation. It also produced a more uniform and systematic style and structure to presentations, in particular the case studies illustrating the eight EU ICZM principles of best practice, and embedded the ICZM principles and European perspectives of coastal management within the context of the work environment.This paper reviews methods for practitioner-oriented capacity building, and details the evolution of a training course to sensitise and familiarise coastal practitioners with the principles and practices of ICZM, working from local to national to trans-national scales. The lessons learnt from the ICZM capacity development in COREPOINT are identified and it is suggested that these are relevant and applicable to many other ICZM initiatives.     

Integrated coastal zone management using the ecosystems approach,some perspectives in Malaysia

An effective assessment of functions, goods and services of coastal ecosystems requires commitment from the various stakeholders and an integrated approach in the management of the ecosystem. Malaysia has made commitments through its policies, the latest being the Eighth Malaysia Plan, for 2001–2005 (“8th MP”), which is the first phase implementation of the Third Outline Perspective Plan (“OPP3”), charting the development of the nation for the first decade in the 21st Century. The pledge to develop an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Policy (“ICZM”) is being carried out to reconcile conflicting uses and ensure sustainability of coastal resources, plus identify and provide for uniformity and minimum standards to be adopted in Malaysia. These policy instruments (e.g. OPP3, 8th MP, Draft ICZM, National Policy on Biodiversity) will set the objectives and direction that will allow for formal instruments of implementation of strategies and plans envisaged to take place, besides setting the stage for the various stakeholders and outlining responsibilities and commitments. It will also allow for disciplines and findings be it in science, socio-economic and humanities to interface with policies and its instruments of implementation, especially when put into the context of the ecosystems approach.     

Sea Grant in Latin America?: Adapting the US Sea Grant model of linked applied research,extension, and education to a Latin American Context—Is there a fit?

This paper explores the application of the US Sea Grant model of applied research, extension, and education to two case studies in Latin America: Coastal Ecuador and the Gulf of Fonseca. The analysis is based on a series of meetings and roundtables with in-country partners and leaders of the US Sea Grant program. We conclude that the Sea Grant model provides an institutional structure that Latin America lacks and the model's features would improve governance of marine and coastal resources through more effective linkages between coastal communities, universities, and policy/decision makers at local, national, and international levels.     

A Coastal and Marine National Park for Scotland in partnership with Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Potential benefits and constraints of a Coastal and Marine National Park (CMNP) for the entire Scottish coastline have yet to be fully debated. This paper recommends using Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) as a process to develop a CMNP. Converting the principles of ICZM into practice could be strengthened using the National Parks (Scotland) Act 2000. This Act provides the Scottish Executive with an existing legal mechanism to set up the UK's first CMNP.Issues highlighted that would benefit from further investigation include ways to effectively harness expertise, funding considerations, practical implementation and stakeholder participation. A strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis demonstrates a ‘quick and dirty’ method to help assess whether CMNPs are a viable option for managing Scotland's coastal areas. Strengthening the existing local coastal fora network in partnership with universities that have ‘in-house’ multi-disciplinary expertise is put forward as one way to implement a CMNP.Stakeholder engagement at the start and throughout the debate on CMNPs warrants a high priority for action. Incentives that help to counter against survey fatigue and actively sustain involvement of civil society and key sectors should be sought from local knowledge. This approach could also address the fundamental gap in translating stakeholder derived information into practical policy recommendations that are more widely supported. Finally, local knowledge can aid resource management plans on a local, national and international scale and be applied to testing management scenarios.     

A World Bank framework for ICZM with special emphasis on Africa

This paper describes the World Bank's emerging program in Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), with a focus on Africa. The major elements and direction of this program are summarized, drawing especially on examples from Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean, where the Bank's program in ICZM was initiated and where significant opportunities exist to influence the course of development in coastal areas still not transformed by major growth. The challenges ahead in establishing a viable framework for ICZM in Africa are then discussed. The paper concludes with suggestions as to how the Bank and partners in the region can best focus their efforts in the future to meet these challenges.     

Visitors' awareness of ICZM and WTP for beach preservation in four European Mediterranean regions

This paper discusses the results of a multi-country survey about private stakeholders' contribution to coastal preservation. It was conducted in four coastal sites of Greece, Italy and France, in order to collect information about beach visitors' perception of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and their willingness to pay (WTP) for beach preservation, intended here as defence from erosion. In order to find out whether ICZM perception is a determinant of WTP, regression analysis is applied. Results show that in these sites respondents have a low level of information about the nature of ICZM, despite local authorities having implemented some ICZM strategies for preserving the coast. Nevertheless, those who are informed about ICZM have a higher probability of paying for beach preservation. This suggests to policymakers that promoting public awareness about ICZM may increase the probability of paying. Finally, some categories of visitors, such as women and young and middle-aged people, have a higher probability of paying than men and older people, thus suggesting a more sensitive attitude to beach preservation. Therefore, policy-makers should also pay attention to the categories of visitors less likely to pay.     

Towards coastal risk management in France

The coastal territories of mainland France constitute a prime example of an at-risk territory, with their growing concentrations of people and economic activities located mostly on a coastal fringe that is subject to shoreline retreat and coastal flooding. The perspective of higher sea levels due to climate changes exacerbates the risk that these territories will be exposed to natural coastal hazards. Since the “invention” of the littoral zone in the mid 19th-century, the vulnerability of the economic stakes on this coastal fringe has been managed mainly by controlling the hazards; this control is coordinated by the national government, which initiated coastal defense practices. At the beginning of the 1980s, natural risk prevention policies favored managing the consequences of natural disasters, with the creation of the CatNat insurance regime to indemnify natural disaster victims. By the middle of the 1990s, new natural risk management strategies had been invented to complete the control of natural hazards. As part of the emerging philosophy of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), the French government encouraged the development of natural risk prevention policies by establishing Natural Risk Prevention Plans (PPRn) in 1995. These PPRn were a new approach to shoreline management that favored controlling development in coastal communities. As of 2008, PPRn had been approved in 270 coastal communities and required in 149.At the beginning of the 21st century, the French government set down the general orientations for managing natural coastal risks, but it was not the only stakeholder involved. Collective action emerged, bringing the national government, public institutions and the territorial and local authorities together to develop risk management policies. This collective action was facilitated by a form of decentralization of natural coastal risk management, involving regional or local implementation of the strategic orientations of shoreline management, respecting the general principles defined by the national government. These changes are part of the ICZM implementation process, which has been under way since 2005. The development of natural coastal risk prevention policies is reinforced by the soon-to-be-adopted bill concerning the Grenelle of the Environment. These policies are mainly financed by the Barnier Fund for major natural risk prevention, which is in turn funded by an obligatory contribution based on the CatNat insurance premiums. This type of financing raises the question of the relationship between risk prevention strategies and natural disaster management.     

Relevance of systems approaches for implementing Integrated Coastal Zone Management principles in Europe

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) development is described here in the broader context of European coastal management initiatives. The European approach to coastal governance revolves around the principles of ICZM, as enshrined in EC Recommendation 2002/413/EC. This study investigates the extent to which the FP6 funded project SPICOSA (Science Policy Integration for Coastal Systems Assessment) was able to implement these principles. The SPICOSA project aimed to test whether it was possible to develop and implement a systems approach framework via delivery of a structured engagement process between scientists and policymakers. A survey of representatives from 14 European study sites involved in the project revealed that the approach had been effective at implementing some ICZM principles, particularly the “holistic approach”. However, not all principles were fully implemented at all sites and the most challenging to implement was that of “a long term approach”. The paper concludes with a critical consideration of the role of a systems approach framework in progressing the current state of intellectual assent towards practical implementation of ICZM principles. The findings provide evidence of contributions and limitations of systems approaches to sustainability science and good governance.     

Coastal governance in North West Europe: An assessment of approaches to the European stocktake

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) necessitates not only an understanding of the coastal environments to be managed but also an understanding of the nature of the governance systems in place. The latter not only vary between individual European Member States but also within States. This paper explores the governance systems in operation and focuses on the approaches taken in completing the ICZM stocktakes and strategies in North West Europe, as required by the European ICZM Recommendation. The paper not only synthesises existing European documentation, but also incorporates some of the key experiences of ICZM from the COREPOINT project and its partners. The paper findings suggest that effective inter-organisational linkages and coordinated efforts are required to deliver ICZM and the European ICZM Recommendation's principles of good governance. However, such aspects are largely non-existent in North West Europe.