汶川大地震诱发滑坡的震中距

本文在地震滑坡规模(体积)类型5级划分法的基础上,采用数学方法对汶川地震灾区的2个宏观震中(映秀、北川)烈度I0≥XI极震区(10个县市)的地震滑坡震中距进行了讨论。其中地震滑坡随震中距分布基本符合正弦、高斯和指数衰减规律。极震区最大滑坡震中距可达120km,最小滑坡震中距可达0.25km。结果表明,地震诱发滑坡的规模(体积)和分布范围都与震中距具有相关性。     

Analysis of an anti-dip landslide triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China

The Guantan landslide, with a total displaced mass of about 468 × 10⁴ m³, was triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake and succeeding rainfall in Jushui Town, Sichuan Province, China. The landslide occurred on an anti-dip hard rock slope with a weak rock founding stratum of 200 m in thickness. To investigate the failure mechanism of the Guantan landslide, dynamic behaviors of hard and soft rock slopes were investigated by means of large scale shaking table tests. The laboratory models attempted to simulate the field geological conditions of the Guantan landslide. Sinusoidal waves and actual seismic waves measured from the Wenchuan Earthquake were applied on the slope models under 37 loading configurations. The experimental results indicated that deformation mainly developed at a shallow depth in the upper part of the hard rock slope and in the upper (near the crest) and lower (near the toe) parts of the soft rock slope. An equation for predicting the depth of sliding plane was proposed based on the location of the maximum horizontal acceleration. Finally, it was concluded that the failure process of the Guantan landslide occurred in three stages: (1) toppling failure caused by compression of the underlying soft rock strata, (2) formation of crushed hard rock and sliding surface in soft rock as the result of seismic shocks, particularly in the horizontal direction, and (3) aftershock rainfall accelerates the process of mass movement along the sliding plane.     

Landslide hazards triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan, China

The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (M _s = 8.0; epicenter located at 31.0° N, 103.4° E), with a focal depth of 19.0 km was triggered by the reactivation of the Longmenshan fault in Wenchuan County, Sichuan Province, China on 12 May 2008. This earthquake directly caused more than 15,000 geohazards in the form of landslides, rockfalls, and debris flows which resulted in about 20,000 deaths. It also caused more than 10,000 potential geohazard sites, especially for rockfalls, reflecting the susceptibility of high and steep slopes in mountainous areas affected by the earthquake. Landslide occurrence on mountain ridges and peaks indicated that seismic shaking was amplified by mountainous topography. Thirty-three of the high-risk landslide lakes with landslide dam heights greater than 10 m were classified into four levels: extremely high risk, high risk, medium risk, and low risk. The levels were created by comprehensively analyzing the capacity of landslide lakes, the height of landslide dams, and the composition and structure of materials that blocked rivers. In the epicenter area which was 300 km long and 10 km wide along the main seismic fault, there were lots of landslides triggered by the earthquake, and these landslides have a common characteristic of a discontinuous but flat sliding surface. The failure surfaces can be classified into the following three types based on their overall shape: concave, convex, and terraced. Field evidences illustrated that the vertical component of ground shaking had a significant effect on both building collapse and landslide generation. The ground motion records show that the vertical acceleration is greater than the horizontal, and the acceleration must be larger than 1.0 g in some parts along the main seismic fault. Two landslides are discussed as high speed and long runout cases. One is the Chengxi landslide in Beichuan County, and the other is the Donghekou landslide in Qingchuan County. In each case, the runout process and its impact on people and property were analyzed. The Chengxi landslide killed 1,600 people and destroyed numerous houses. The Donghekou landslide is a complex landslide–debris flow with a long runout. The debris flow scoured the bank of the Qingjiang River for a length of 2,400 m and subsequently formed a landslide dam. This landslide buried seven villages and killed more than 400 people.     

汶川地震触发平溪村滑坡特征及成因分析

平溪村滑坡是汶川地震触发的高速岩质滑坡,面积为3.7×104m2,体积约65×104m3。滑坡距离映秀—北川发震断裂带中的石坎断层不足500m,在强大地震力作用下,滑坡滑动面陡峭、粗糙,与重力作用下呈圆弧、平滑的滑面迥异。地震触发的滑坡可分为三个阶段:①震动拉裂阶段;②摩擦阻力降低、"锁固段"剪断阶段;③滑体溃滑,高速流动堆积阶段。然后结合结构面的力学分析,通过数值模拟对地震作用下的应力变化和震裂机制进行了初步分析。     

The characteristics and failure mechanism of the largest landslide triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake, May 12, 2008, China

Strong earthquakes are among the prime triggering factors of landslides. The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (M _w = 7.9) triggered tens of thousands of landslides. Among them, the Daguangbao landslide is the largest one, which covered an area of 7.8 km² with a maximum width of 2.2 km and an estimated volume of 7.5 × 10⁸ m³. The landslide is located on the hanging wall of the seismogenic fault, the Yingxiu–Beichuan fault in Anxian town, Sichuan Province. The sliding mass travelled about 4.5 km and blocked the Huangdongzi valley, forming a landslide dam nearly 600 m high. Compared to other coseismic landslides in the study area, the Daguangbao landslide attained phenomenal kinetic energy, intense cracking, and deformation, exposing a 1-km long head scarp in the rear of the landslide. Based on the field investigation, we conclude that the occurrence of the landslide is controlled mainly by the seismic, terrain, and geological factors. The special location of the landslide and the possible topographic amplification of ground motions due to the terrain features governed the landslide failure. The effects of earthquakes on the stability of slopes were considered in two aspects: First, the ground shaking may reduce the frictional strength of the substrate by shattering of rock mass. Second, the seismic acceleration may result in short-lived and episodic changes of the normal (tensile) and shear stresses in the hillshopes during earthquakes. According to the failure mechanism, the dynamic process of the landslide might contain four stages: (a) the cracking of rock mass in the rear of the slope mainly due to the tensile stress generated by the ground shaking; (b) the shattering of the substrate due to the ground shaking, which reduced the frictional strength of the substrate; (c) the shearing failure of the toe of the landslide due to the large shear stress caused by the landslide gravity; and (d) the deposition stage.     

Spatial distribution of landslides triggered by the 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake,China

The Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake of May 12, 2008 is one of the most disastrous earthquakes in China. The earthquake triggered tens of thousands of landslides over a broad area, including shallow, disrupted landslides, rock falls, deep-seated landslides, and rock avalanches, some of which buried large sections of some towns and dammed the rivers. The purpose of this study is to investigate correlations between the occurrence of landslides with geologic and geomorphologic conditions, and seismic parameters. Over 56,000 earthquake-triggered landslides, with a total area of 811 km², are interpreted using aerial photographs and remote sensing images taken following the earthquake. The spatial distribution of these landslides is analyzed statistically using both landslide-point density (LPD), defined as the number of landslides per square kilometer, and landslide-area density (LAD), the percentage of the area affected by landslides, to determine how the occurrence of landslides correlates with distance from the epicenter, distance from the major surface rupture, seismic intensity and peak ground acceleration (PGA), slope angle, slope aspect, elevation, and lithology. It is found that both LAD and LPD have strong positive correlations with slope steepness, distance from the major surface rupture and seismic intensity, and that Pre-Sinian schist, and Cambrian sandstone and siltstone intercalated with slate have the most concentrated landslide activities, followed by the Permian limestone intercalated with shale, and Devonian limestone. Statistical analyses also indicate that the major surface rupture has influence on the spatial distribution of landslides, because LAD and LPD are relatively higher on the hanging wall than on the footwall. However, the correlation between the occurrence of landslides with distance from the epicenter of the earthquake is complicated, rather than a relatively simple negative correlation as found from other reported cases of earthquakes. This is possibly due to complicated rupture processes of the earthquake.     

四川汶川Ms 8 级地震触发的典型滑坡的风险指标反演

2008年汶川大地震触发了数以万计的崩塌和滑坡,特别是沿发震断裂分布一系列大型的高速远程滑坡。为了探索地震诱发大型高速远程滑坡运动速度的反演方法,以汶川大地震典型高速远程滑坡为例,在野外调查和室内分析的基础上,结合前人的研究成果,对沿映秀－北川断裂展布的5个典型滑坡的速度进行了反演和计算。结果表明,5个滑坡的最大速度均大于50m/s,其中大光包滑坡速度最大,其下部滑体的最大速度约为300m/s,上部滑体凌空飞行的初速度高达165.6 m/s。同时,对上述滑坡的视摩擦系数进行了计算,4个滑坡的视摩擦系数介于0.16~0.4之间。这一研究的目的在于为类似地区地震滑坡的速度、最大位移量的预测和风险评估提供基础数据,对于类似地区的防灾减灾具有一定的参考价值。     

四川汶川Ms 8 级地震触发的典型滑坡的风险指标反演

2008年汶川大地震触发了数以万计的崩塌和滑坡,特别是沿发震断裂分布一系列大型的高速远程滑坡。为了探索地震诱发大型高速远程滑坡运动速度的反演方法,以汶川大地震典型高速远程滑坡为例,在野外调查和室内分析的基础上,结合前人的研究成果,对沿映秀－北川断裂展布的5个典型滑坡的速度进行了反演和计算。结果表明,5个滑坡的最大速度均大于50m/s,其中大光包滑坡速度最大,其下部滑体的最大速度约为300m/s,上部滑体凌空飞行的初速度高达165.6 m/s。同时,对上述滑坡的视摩擦系数进行了计算,4个滑坡的视摩擦系数介于0.16~0.4之间。这一研究的目的在于为类似地区地震滑坡的速度、最大位移量的预测和风险评估提供基础数据,对于类似地区的防灾减灾具有一定的参考价值。     

Source characteristics of long runout rock avalanches triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake,China

The May 12, 2008 Wenchuan, China Earthquake which measured M_w = 8.3 according to Chinese Earthquake Administration – CEA (M_w = 7.9 according to the USGS) directly triggered many landslides, which caused about 20,000 deaths, a quarter of the total. Rock avalanches were among the most destructive landslides triggered by this seismic event, and have killed more people than any other type of landslide in this earthquake. The Donghekou rock avalanche, one example of a catastrophic avalanche triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake, occurred in Qingchuan and buried one primary school and 184 houses, resulting in more than 780 deaths, and in addition, caused the formation of two landslide dams, which formed barrier lakes.Combining aerial images (resolution of 0.5 m) with field investigations, this paper lists some parameters of 66 cases in one table, and details source characteristics of six typical cases. It has been found that most of the long runout rock avalanches have source areas with high relief and steep inclination, causing the debris in the travel courses to accelerate. There was also a large amount of saturated Holocene-age loose deposits formed by a river or gully that existed in the travel courses. Comparison studies indicate that saturated Holocene loose deposits in the travel courses could be the most important factor for the causes of the long runout characteristic of the rock avalanches especially when they traveled over gentle or even flat ground surfaces.Furthermore, the relationships among the relief slope gradient, runout and covered area are investigated, and a threshold line for predicting the maximum horizontal runout distance under certain change in elevation is presented.     

Catastrophic debris flows triggered by a 14 August 2010 rainfall at the epicenter of the Wenchuan earthquake

The Wenchuan earthquake of May 12, 2008 produced large amounts of loose material (landslide debris) that are still present on the steep slopes and in the gullies. This loose material creates an important hazard as strong rainfall can cause the development of devastating debris flows that will endanger the resettled population and destroy the result of reconstruction efforts. On 14 August 2010, a total of 21 debris flows were triggered by heavy rainfall around the town of Yingxue, located near the epicenter of the Wenchuan earthquake. One of these debris flows produced a debris dam, which then changed the course of the river and resulted in the flooding of the newly reconstructed Yinxue town. Prior to this catastrophic event, debris flow hazard had been recognized in the region, but its potential for such widespread and devastating impacts was not fully appreciated. Our primary objective for this study was to analyze the characteristics of the triggering rainfall and the sediment supply conditions leading to this event. Our field observations show that even small debris flow catchment areas have caused widespread sediment deposition on the existing fans. It is concluded that the whole of the area shaken by the Wenchuan earthquake is more susceptible to debris flows, initiated by localized heavy rainfall, than had been assumed earlier. The results of this study contribute to a better understanding of the conditions leading to catastrophic debris flow events in the earthquake-hit area. This is essential for the implementation of proper early warning, prevention, and mitigation measures as well as a better land use planning in this area.     

On the initiation and movement mechanisms of a catastrophic landslide triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan (M<Subscript>s</Subscript> 8.0) earthquake in the epicenter area

The Niumiangou landslide (~7.5 × 10⁶ m³) was the largest that occurred in the town of Yingxiu (the epicentral area) during the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. This landslide originated on a steep slope (~30°) that was located directly above the rupture surface of the responsible fault and then traveled ~2 km after flowing down the axes of two gently sloping (<12°) valleys. Evidence at the site indicates that the landslide materials were highly fluidized and underwent rapid movement. To examine the initiation and movement mechanisms of this landslide, we performed a detailed field survey, conducted laboratory tests on samples taken from the field, and analyzed the seismic motion. We conclude that the landside materials were displaced due to seismic loading during the earthquake and that liquefaction may have been triggered in saturated layers above the sliding surface with progressive downslope sliding, which resulted in the high mobility of the displaced materials. The liquefaction of colluvial deposits along the travel path due to loading by the sliding mass enhanced the mobility of the displaced mass originating in the source area. Using an energy-based approach, we estimated the dissipated energy in our cyclic loading test and the possible energy dissipated to the soil layer on the slope by the earthquake. We infer that the seismic energy available for the initiation of the slope failure in the source area may have greatly exceeded the amount required for the initiation of the liquefaction failure. The slope instability might have been triggered several seconds after the arrival of seismic motion.     

Preliminary investigation of some large landslides triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan Province, China

The M _s 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake or “Great Sichuan Earthquake” occurred at 14:28 p.m. local time on 12 May 2008 in Sichuan Province, China. Damage by earthquake-induced landslides was an important part of the total earthquake damage. This report presents preliminary observations on the Hongyan Resort slide located southwest of the main epicenter, shallow mountain surface failures in Xuankou village of Yingxiu Town, the Jiufengchun slide near Longmenshan Town, the Hongsong Hydro-power Station slide near Hongbai Town, the Xiaojiaqiao slide in Chaping Town, two landslides in Beichuan County-town which destroyed a large part of the town, and the Donghekou and Shibangou slides in Qingchuan County which formed the second biggest landslide lake formed in this earthquake. The influences of seismic, topographic, geologic, and hydro-geologic conditions are discussed.     

汶川地震触发崩滑地质灾害空间分布及影响因素

通过遥感解译和实地考察,获取了2008年汶川地震触发崩滑的空间分布,利用GIS空间分析和Lo-gistic回归,分析崩滑的空间分布特征及其影响因素,建立了地震触发崩滑与其影响因素之间的回归方程。结果表明,(1)研究区共有5 154个崩滑群,覆盖总面积1 139 km2;(2)崩滑沿北川—映秀发震断层的两侧(断层上盘区占90%),呈北东向宽度不一的条带状分布;(3)Ⅺ和Ⅹ烈度区崩滑面积占区域面积的73.2%,Ⅷ度及以下烈度区崩滑面积比例较小;(4)崩滑发育及空间分布不仅受控于发震断层的活动,断层上下盘效应、地形放大效应等也是其重要影响因素。崩滑与其影响因子的回归方程表明:(1)到北川—映秀发震断层距离因子和到震中距离因子的偏回归系数远大于其他因子的偏回归系数,北川—映秀断层发震活动是控制崩滑空间分布的主导因子;(2)岩性软硬程度对崩滑空间分布的影响不显著;(3)地形坡度、高程、坡度变率、多年累积降雨、人工修路及植被覆盖对崩滑的发育产生影响。地形高程因子对崩滑空间分布的影响大于坡度、坡度变率因子的影响。人工道路、多年降雨及植被覆盖对地震崩滑的影响程度依次降低。     

Dynamics of the Niumiangou Creek rock avalanche triggered by 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan, China

The Niumiangou Creek rock avalanche was triggered by an M_s 8.0 earthquake that happened on 12 May 2008 in the Sichuan Province, China. The rock avalanche traveled a horizontal distance of 3.0 km over a vertical elevation difference of 0.89 km, equivalent to a coefficient of friction of only 0.29. The travel path of the rock avalanche can be divided into three segments: (1) failing and disintegrating, (2) flying, (3) flowing. In the failing and disintegrating segment, the rock slope failed because of the coupled action of horizontal and vertical force of the earthquake, then smashed into the opposite mountain and disintegrated. In the flying segment, the disintegrating rock mass changed direction and flew into the Lianhuaxin Creek, which was different from the previous research results that concluded rock debris flowed in Lianhuaxin Creek. A great amount of air trapped and compressed under the rock debris acted as air cushion and supported the rock debris to fly a further distance. In the flowing segment, the rock debris flowed on the ground surface in Niumiangou Creek. The flowing velocity has been estimated from the maximum elevation and runup according to the damaged trimlines of the debris. The saturated fine material in Niumiangou Creek entrained by the failed debris mass is thought to have contributed to the long runout of the debris. The Niumiangou Creek rock avalanche is one of the three longest rock avalanches triggered by Wenchuan earthquake. The conclusions of the paper have implications for hazard assessment of potential rock avalanches in the earthquake area and the other similar mountainous area in west China.     

Vertical acceleration effect on landsides triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake,China

The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake with Ms8.0 triggered extensive throwing-pattern landslides in the area within or near the seismic faults. The resultant landslides from this earthquake brought to the fore the effect of vertical earthquake acceleration on landslide occurrence. The pseudostatic analysis and the dynamic response on landslide stability due to the Wenchuan earthquake are studied with the Chengxi (West Town) catastrophic landslide used as a case study. The results show that the epicenter distance is an important factor which affects the vertical acceleration and thus the stability of landslide. Also, the vertical acceleration was found to have a significant impact on the FOS of landslide if the earthquake magnitude is quite large. Within the seismic fault, the amplitude effect of vertical acceleration is very dominant with the FOS of landslide, for vertical acceleration ranging from positive to negative, having a variation of 25 %. The variation of FOS of landslide for vertical acceleration ranging from positive to negative are 15 and 5 % for landslides near seismic fault and outside seismic fault, respectively. For landslide with a slope angle <45°, the FOS of landslide with both horizontal and vertical accelerations is significantly greater than the one without vertical acceleration. Further, the results computed from both the pseudostatic method and dynamic analysis reveal that the FOS during the earthquake varied significantly whether vertical acceleration is considered or not. The results from this study explain why lots of throwing-pattern catastrophic landslides occurred within 10 km of the seismic fault in the Wenchuan earthquake.     

Field testing of erodibility of two landslide dams triggered by the 12 May Wenchuan earthquake

A strong earthquake of magnitude 8 in Richter scale, occurred in Sichuan Province, China on 12 May 2008, triggered about 257 landslide dams. The erodibility of fresh landslide deposits plays an important role in evaluating the initiation and development of breaching of such landslide dams. In this research, field jet index tests were conducted shortly after the earthquake at 27 locations on the Hongshihe landslide dam and the Libaisi landslide dam. The purpose of these tests was to investigate the erodibility of freshly deposited landslide soils. The landslide deposits are broadly graded. The bulk density increases and the coefficient of erodibility decreases with the depth of deposition. The erodibility of the fresh landslide deposits falls into a moderately resistant category and the fresh deposits are much more erodible than the native geomaterials before the earthquake. The main factors that control soil erodibility are found to be grain-size distribution, void ratio, fines content, and plasticity index. Particularly, the coefficient of erodibility decreases exponentially with the degree of compaction. Two empirical equations are developed for estimating the coefficient of erodibility and critical erosive shear stress of the freshly deposited landslide soils based on their basic soil properties.     

Simulation of the sliding process of Donghekou landslide triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake using a distinct element method

In the village of Donghekou (in Qingchuan County, Sichuan Province, China), a major landslide was triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake in 2008 with more than 10 × 10⁶ m³ of rock displaced. The kinematic behavior of this landslide is simulated using a 2D discrete element model. The numerical model used in this work is composed of discs bonded together. The initial boundary conditions are applied along the ball–wall contacts by using an initial velocity estimated from the strong motion data. The constraints are mainly issued from the final geometry of the landslide including its capacity to dam the river. The modeling thus indicates that a low friction coefficient (about 0.1) is required to account for the actual landslide characteristics. The runout behaviors are analyzed and some useful conclusions are drawn.     

The Mogangling giant landslide triggered by the 1786 Moxi M 7.75 earthquake,China

A good understanding of seismic giant landslides could provide favourable guidance for seismic stability evaluation of nearby slopes. Here, an excellent example of a catastrophic seismic landslide named the Mogangling giant landslide (MGL), located upstream along the Dadu River and triggered by the 1786 Moxi M 7.75 earthquake, is analysed for its deposit characteristics, failure mechanism and dammed lake. The MGL, with a volume of approximately 4500?×?10⁴ m³, 450 m long and 1000 m wide, blocked the Dadu River completely and caused over 100 000 deaths when the landslide dam broke. The MGL occurred on the upper part of a narrow granite ridge; a potentially unstable wedge-shaped rock mass was separated from the remaining massif by unloading fissures and an active fault (Detuo fault) that just crossed the slope foot. The Moxi earthquake coupled with strong site amplification triggered the MGL, which blocked the Dadu River; the elevation of the dam crest was approximately 130 m higher than the present river level. The dammed lake had a volume of approximately 9.504?×?10⁸ m³, an area of 19.91 km² and a length of approximately 31 km; the peak flow of the outburst flood was larger than 7100 m³/s. After hundreds of years of concave bank erosion, the deposit is divided into the right bank deposit (main deposit) and left bank deposit (residual deposit).

     

Characteristics and numerical runout modelling of a catastrophic rock avalanche triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake in the Wenjia valley,Mianzhu, Sichuan,China

The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake triggered more than 100 rock avalanches with volumes greater than 10 million cubic metres. The rock avalanche with the longest runout amongst these destructive landslides occurred in the Wenjia valley, Mianzhu, Sichuan, China. The landslide involved the failure of about 27.5 million cubic metres of sandstone from the source area. The displaced material travelled about 4,170 m with an elevation descent of about 1,360 m, equivalent to a fahrböschung of 16.9° and covered an area of 1.5 million square metres, with the final deposited volume of approximately 49 million cubic metres. The catastrophic event destroyed the village of Yanjing, killed 48 people and buried some houses at the mouth of the Wenjia valley. On the basis of a detailed field investigation, we introduce basic characteristics of the rock avalanche and find that the rock avalanche resulted in two run-ups and a superelevation along the runout path, and downslope enlargement due to the entrainment of path materials. A numerical model (DAN3D) is used to simulate the post-failure behaviour of the rock avalanche. By means of trial and error, a combination of the frictional model and Voellmy model is found to provide the best performance in simulating this rock avalanche. The simulation results reveal that the rock avalanche had a duration of about 240 s and an average velocity of 17.4 m/s.