Biogeochemical processes controlling methane in gassy coastal sediments—Part 2: groundwater flow control of acoustic turbidity in Eckernförde Bay Sediments

To understand the origin of the methane distributions in sediments of Eckernförde Bay, three sites were sampled in May 1994 for determination of methane, sulfate and chloride concentrations in the sediment porewaters. In much of the Bay, bubbles of biogenic methane gas within the sediments lead to widespread ‘acoustic turbidity’ seen in acoustic surveys, masking the sedimentary structure below the gassy horizon. Acoustic windows, where the gas does not appear to be present, occur in several locations in the Bay, often surrounded by acoustically turbid sediments. Pockmarks, shallow depressions in the sediment, are also found in Bay sediments and may show acoustic turbidity at even shallower depths below the interface than surrounding sediments. One site of each type was sampled in this study. The site probably representative of much of the bay below 20 m water depth, revealed methane saturated conditions by about 75 cm depth below the interface, confirming inferences from acoustic scattering data that free gas was present in the sediment. Above this, the methane concentration profile was concave-upward, indicative of methane oxidation in the overlying, sulfate-reducing sediments. These porewaters showed a slightly decreasing chlorinity with depth. At an acoustic window site, methane concentrations rose to a maximum at about 125 cm depth, but did not reach saturation. Below this depth they decreased in a concave-down pattern. Chloride concentrations decreased markedly with depth, indicative of vertical freshwater flow from below. The third site was a pockmark exhibiting very shallow acoustic turbidity at about 25 cm depth. Here methane concentrations rose to exceed saturation within 25 cm depth below the interface and the porewaters became almost fresh by 1.5 m depth, indicative of a stronger flow of freshwater from below. These groundwater flows have competing effects on the methane inventory. They help exclude sulfate from the sediment, allowing the earlier/shallower onset of methanogenesis, but they also aid loss of methane through advection. A diagenetic model that couples the biogeochemistry of sulfate and methane is used to explain the presence or absence of methane gas in these sediments in relation to the flow rate of fresh groundwater from below. Model results indicate that acoustic windows within otherwise acoustically turbid sediments of the bay are likely due to relatively higher rates of vertical advection of fresh groundwater. The gassy pockmark, however, with an even higher vertical advection rate, seems to require the input of additional reactive organic carbon to explain its vertical methane distribution.     

Shallow gas in the muddy sediments of Eckernförde Bay, Germany

The seafloor of central Eckernförde Bay is characterised by soft muddy sediments that contain free methane gas. Bubbles of free gas cause acoustic turbidity which is observed with acoustic remote sensing systems. Repeated surveys with subbottom profiler and side scan sonar revealed an annual period both of depth of the acoustic turbidity and backscatter strength. The effects are delayed by 3–4 months relative to the atmospheric temperature cycle. In addition, prominent pockmarks, partly related to gas seepage, were detected with the acoustic systems. In a direct approach gas concentrations were measured from cores using the gas chromatography technique. From different tests it is concluded that subsampling of a core should start at its base and should be completed as soon as possible, at least within 35 min after core recovery. Comparison of methane concentrations of summer and winter cores revealed no significant seasonal variation. Thus, it is concluded that the temperature and pressure influences upon solubility control the depth variability of acoustic turbidity which is observed with acoustic remote sensing systems. The delay relative to the atmospheric temperature cycle is caused by slow heat transfer through the water column. The atmospheric temperature cycle as ‘exiting function’ for variable gas solubility offers an opportunity for modelling and predicting the depth of the acoustic turbidity. In practice, however, small-scale variations of, e.g., salinity, or gas concentration profile in the sediment impose limits to predictions. In addition, oceanographic influences as mixing in the water column, variable water inflow, etc. are further complications that reduce the reliability of predictions.     

Geotechnical properties and behavior of high-porosity, organic-rich sediments in Eckernförde Bay, Germany

The organically rich, fine-grained, very soft, high porosity sediments in the inner portion of Eckernförde Bay, Germany have varying amounts of methane gas, with the horizon of gas fluctuating vertically on a seasonal cycle. The sharp vertical gradient in water content, with values exceeding 500% at the sediment–water interface, and corresponding gradient in density can be expected to cause a significant subbottom acoustic impedance contrast in these surficial sediments. Equations are presented to characterize geotechnical property variations of the upper 5 m. The upper 1.5 m exhibits appreciable ‘apparent’ overconsolidation with a trend toward a normally consolidated stress state at 2.5 m depth. The coefficient of permeability of the upper 40 cm is low (4×10^-6 cm s^-1) and the sediment is highly compressible with compression indices of 2.7–6.8. Triaxial compression test results indicate that the sediment behaves as a normally consolidated clay with a low friction angle (22°). The rheological behavior of the upper 20–30 cm, determined with a small vane device, is indicative of a shear-thinning material, implying that the resistance to penetration decreases with increasing velocity.     

The influence of gas bubbles on sediment acoustic properties: in situ, laboratory, and theoretical results from Eckernförde Bay, Baltic sea

Acoustic turbidity caused by the presence of gas bubbles in seafloor sediments is a common occurrence worldwide,but is as yet poorly understood. The Coastal Benthic Boundary Layer experiment in the Baltic off northern Germany was planned to better characterize the acoustic response of a bubbly sediment horizon. In this context, in situ measurements of compressional wave speed and attenuation were made over the frequency range of 5–400 kHz in gassy sediments of Eckernförde Bay. Dispersion of compressional speed data was used to determine the upper limit of the frequency of methane bubble resonance at between 20 and 25 kHz. These data, combined with bubble size distributions determined from CT scans of sediments in cores retained at ambient pressure, yield estimates of effective bubble sizes of 0.3–5.0 mm equivalent radius. The highly variable spatial distribution of bubble volume and bubble size distribution is used to reconcile the otherwise contradictory frequency-dependent speed and attenuation data with theory. At acoustic frequencies above resonance (>25 kHz) compressional speed is unaffected by bubbles and scattering from bubbles dominates attenuation. At frequencies below resonance (<1 kHz) ‘compressibility effects’ dominate, speed is much lower (250 m s^-1) than bubble-free sediments, and attenuation is dominated by scattering from impedance contrasts. Between 1.5 and 25 kHz bubble resonance greatly affects speed and attenuation. Compressional speed in gassy sediments (1100–1200 m s^-1) determined at 5–15 kHz is variable and higher than predicted by theory (<250 m s^-1). These higher measured speeds result from two factors: speeds are an average of lower speeds in gassy sediments and higher speeds in bubble-free sediments; and the volume of smaller-sized bubbles which contribute to the lower observed speeds is much lower than total gas volume. The frequency-dependent acoustic propagation is further complicated as the mixture of bubble sizes selectively strips energy near bubble resonance frequencies (very high attenuation) allowing lower and higher frequency energy to propagate. It was also demonstrated that acoustic characterization of gassy sediments can be used to define bubble size distribution and fractional volume.     

The ocean floor morphostructure of the Bay of Bengal (Indian Ocean) and the problem of its origin

This study is based on the geological and geophysical data obtained in the Bay of Bengal and adjacent part of the Mid-Indian Ocean Basin by different Russian scientific and industrial institutions in the 1980s and 1990s. The results of the more recent foreign investigations are also involved. The analysis of the collected data provided a new insight into the geological structure and evolution of the region indicating that a large dry-land area—the Bengal elevation—existed in the Cretaceous at the location of the present-day Bay of Bengal. During the Cretaceous, the geological evolution of this area was controlled by epicontinental sedimentation and active volcanism. In the Late Cretaceous, progressive submersion with the inception of the Central Basin took place in the region. The subsidence of the basement was accompanied by active differentiated tectonic movements in the southern part of the Bay of Bengal. As a result, the basement experienced fragmentation into blocks with the formation of horst and graben structures. The horst relics eventually submerged to the current depths in the Late Miocene–Pliocene. The maximal amplitude of basement submersion within the bay is more than 11 km.     

Oxygen isotopic evidence for meteoric water interaction with the Captains Bay pluton,Aleutian Islands

Low¹⁸O/¹⁶O values have been found in rocks from the Captains Bay pluton and surrounding country rocks on Unalaska Island in the Aleutian Islands. The pluton is surrounded by a metamorphic aureole in which the country rocks have been domed, faulted and chaotically fractured. Samples with lower¹⁸O/¹⁶O values (δ¹⁸O = ?4.1 to +2.7‰, SMOW) commonly have interstitial micrographic intergrowths of quartz and turbid potassium feldspar. These facts suggest extensive interaction of circulating meteoric waters with the pluton. Unalaska Island must have been subaerially exposed at or shortly after the time of intrusion of the pluton. The pervasive low-grade metamorphism of the “early series” volcanic rocks of all of the Aleutian Islands might be a result of the interaction of intrusive bodies with meteoric waters rather than the consequence of ridge subduction.     

Mapping of tidal current and associated nonlinear currents in the Xiangshan Bay by coastal acoustic tomography

Ocean Dynamics - Herein, tidal current and associated nonlinear currents were measured using nine coastal acoustic tomography (CAT) systems surrounding the tomography domain in Xiangshan Bay from...     

Effects of subsurface soil characteristics on wetland–groundwater interaction in the coastal plain of the Chesapeake Bay watershed

Ecosystem services provided by depressional wetlands on the coastal plain of the Chesapeake Bay watershed (CBW) have been widely recognized and studied. However, wetland–groundwater interactions remain largely unknown in the CBW. The objective of this study was to examine the vertical interactions of depressional wetlands and groundwater with respect to different subsurface soil characteristics. This study examined two depressional wetlands with a low‐permeability and high‐permeability soil layer on the coastal plain of the CBW. The surface water level (SWL) and groundwater level (GWL) were monitored over 1 year from a well and piezometer at each site, respectively, and those data were used to examine the impacts of subsurface soil characteristics on wetland–groundwater interactions. A large difference between the SWL and GWL was observed at the wetland with a low‐permeability soil layer, although there was strong similarity between the SWL and GWL at the wetland with a high‐permeability soil layer. Our observations also identified a strong vertical hydraulic gradient between the SWL and GWL at the wetland with a high‐permeability soil layer relative to one with a low‐permeability soil layer. The hydroperiod (i.e., the total time of surface water inundation or saturation) of the wetland with a low‐permeability soil layer appeared to rely on groundwater less than the wetland with a high‐permeability soil layer. The findings showed that vertical wetland–groundwater interactions varied with subsurface soil characteristics on the coastal plain of the CBW. Therefore, subsurface soil characteristics should be carefully considered to anticipate the hydrologic behavior of wetlands in this region.     

Submesoscale features and their interaction with fronts and internal tides in a high-resolution coupled atmosphere-ocean-wave model of the Bay of Bengal

Large freshwater fluxes into the Bay of Bengal by rainfall and river discharges result in strong salinity fronts in the bay. In this study, a high-resolution coupled atmosphere-ocean-wave model with comprehensive physics is used to model the weather, ocean circulation, and wave field in the Bay of Bengal. Our objective is to explore the submesoscale activity that occurs in a realistic coupled model that resolves mesoscales and allows part of the submesoscale field. Horizontal resolution in the atmosphere varies from 2 to 6 km and is 13 km for surface waves, while the ocean model is submesoscale permitting with resolutions as high as 1.5 km and a vertical resolution of 0.5 m in the upper 10 m. In this paper, three different cases of oceanic submesoscale features are discussed. In the first case, heavy rainfall and intense downdrafts produced by atmospheric convection are found to force submesoscale currents, temperature, and salinity anomalies in the oceanic mixed layer and impact the mesoscale flow. In a second case, strong solitary-like waves are generated by semidiurnal tides in the Andaman Sea and interact with mesoscale flows and fronts and affect submesoscale features generated along fronts. A third source of submesoscale variability is found further north in the Bay of Bengal where river outflows help maintain strong salinity gradients throughout the year. For that case, a comparison with satellite observations of sea surface height anomalies, sea surface temperature, and chlorophyll shows that the model captures the observed mesoscale eddy features of the flow field, but in addition, submesoscale upwelling and downwelling patterns associated with ageostrophic secondary circulations along density fronts are also captured by the model.     

海南海棠湾海底微地貌多源声学特征、成因及其指示意义

海底微地貌不但可提供环境与工程地质评价信息,避免地质灾害发生和环境破坏,而且对渔业生态建设和沉积环境反演等也具有重要意义.为揭示海底微地貌的多源声学特征,成因及指示意义,利用在海南海棠湾获取的侧扫声呐、浅地层剖面、单道地震数据进行分析.识别出海底沙斑、小沙波、沙纹、礁石堆、基岩等自然微地貌,以及海底拖痕、管道、人工鱼礁、养殖网箱等人工微地貌.证实海底微地貌多源声学识别方法具有综合立体探测的优势,解译可靠性高;全新世以来,研究区如沙斑、小沙波、沙纹等自然微地貌,主要受较弱的水动力条件和沉积物供应不足制约,而人工微地貌主要由人类海洋活动造成,具体表现在基于人工鱼礁投放的海洋牧场建设、海洋养殖、拖网捕鱼以及海底管线敷设等方面;研究区地质条件总体良好,发生地质灾害风险小.     

A coupled model analyses on the interaction between oceanic eddies and tropical cyclones over the Bay of Bengal

Ocean Dynamics - The Bay of Bengal (BOB) region of Indian Ocean is affected by numerous tropical cyclones during pre- and post-monsoon seasons when various eddies are generated in the central and...     

Investigating the transport dynamics and the properties of bedload material with a hydro‐acoustic measuring system

This article deals with the following two questions. Are acoustic measurements in running waters appropriate for a highly resolved investigation of the bedload transport? Which characterizations of the bedload regarding mass and shape are possible via the acoustic signals? The signals were recorded by means of data recorders (Tascam Inc. DAP1 Portable Data Recorder) and hydrophones (International Transducer Corp. ITC‐4001 A). The ITC‐4001 is a shallow water omnidirectional transducer containing a flexural disc transducer utilizing Channelite‐5400 ceramics mounted in a rugged corrosion‐resistant housing. These hydrophones were screwed onto the bottom side of stainless steel plates, serving as a contact surface for the bedload in motion above them. After more than 100 series of tests in the laboratory, which indicated the basic relations between the dimension, shape and weight of the bedload and the resulting signal, field tests of the measuring system were conducted. By artificially produced flood waves in the small brooks Riverisbach, Olewiger Bach and by a winter flood wave in the River Moselle, it is possible to elaborate similar structures of the signal course of the bedload movement. The highest transport rates can be observed at the beginning of the increasing limbs and behind the peaks of the waves. At the beginning of the waves, the increasing transport power of the water and the loose material can be considered as the cause for this result. The high stream velocity behind the wave peaks explains the increase in the bedload transport so that material from the channel beds is unfastened and will be mobilized. The characterization of the bedload regarding the shape and mass is still limited regarding the field measurements and could be solved only for homogeneous grain sizes and single stones under laboratory conditions. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

三门湾沿海声层析潮流观测实验

2009年9月6日至9日在三门湾进行了沿海声层析(Coastal Acoustic Tomography,CAT)潮流观测实验.实验由7台沿海声层析仪组网进行,并分别由渔船定点抛锚于7个站位.实验期间,还进行了定点ADCP(Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler)观测.通过建立逆模式对声传播时间差进行解析,引入权重因子,用L-curve法确定阻尼因子的最佳值,继而根据阻尼最小二乘法得到流速的最佳解.根据逆模式得到的流速分布可知该海区的潮流以半日潮(M2)为主,M2潮流椭圆呈东南-西北走向,潮流基本都是顺着水道,即涨潮为西北流向,退潮为东南流向.西北向与东南向最大流速分别为1.03 m·s-1和1.09 m·s-1.实验期间该区域的余流是从湾外流入湾内,平均流速约为0.05 m·s-1.CAT与定点ADCP流速的东分量和北分量的均方差均小于0.18 m·s-1.这样大面积的潮流和余流水平分布的同步观测,用传统观测手段很难实现.通过以上结果可以得出,沿海声层析技术可以作为一种新的测流方法对强潮海区进行大面积潮流观测,可在我国沿海的海洋环境监测等方面发挥重要作用.     

The dynamics of the acoustic emission with water initiation

The long-term experiments on the biaxial compression of the models prepared from basalt sand, crushed limestone, and cement are carried out. The volume of the models exceeded 4 × 10³ cm³. At different grades of load, water was infused into the model through the borehole. The volume of the infused water was less than 0.1% of the volume of the model itself. Water infusion resulted in the activation of the acoustic emission with a particular time lag. The initiation of the acoustic emission is connected with the local reduction in the strength and with the increase in the stresses near the metastable, which does not contradict the trigger mechanism. The hypocenters of the sources of acoustic signals initiated by water infusion lay in the vicinity of the boreholes. Within the time interval between weak events, pulses with higher energy appeared, which has an analogy with the swarm of earthquakes. The growth and extinction of the acoustic emission after the stepwise additional load and with the initiation by water infusion is significantly different. In the first case, the Omori law is obeyed. In the second case, the intensity of acoustic emission has a pronounced maximum. The equations of the kinetic concept of strength in solids make it possible to describe the dynamics of the acoustic emission caused by water infusion.     

Seismic response of isolated bridges with soil–structure interaction

The modern transportation facilities demand that the bridges are to be constructed across the gorges that are located in seismically active areas and at the same time the site conditions compel the engineers to rest the pier foundation on soil. The purpose of this study is to assess the effects of soil–structure interaction (SSI) on the peak responses of three-span continuous deck bridge seismically isolated by the elastomeric bearings. The emphasis has been placed on gauging the significance of physical parameters that affect the response of the system and identify the circumstances under which it is necessary to include the SSI effects in the design of seismically isolated bridges. The soil surrounding the foundation of pier is modelled by frequency independent coefficients and the complete dynamic analysis is carried out in time domain using complex modal analysis method. In order to quantify the effects of SSI, the peak responses of isolated and non-isolated bridge (i.e. bridge without isolation device) are compared with the corresponding bridge ignoring these effects. A parametric study is also conducted to investigate the effects of soil flexibility and bearing parameters (such as stiffness and damping) on the response of isolated bridge system. It is observed that the soil surrounding the pier has significant effects on the response of the isolated bridges and under certain circumstances the bearing displacements at abutment locations may be underestimated if the SSI effects are not considered in the response analysis of the system.     

2016年以来门源2次6级地震的应力触发及其对祁连—海原断裂带地震危险性的指示

祁连—海原断裂带是青藏高原东北缘的边界断裂带,调节着青藏高原北东向的推挤和阿拉善地块的东向运动.前人动力学模拟指出,该断层有效摩擦系数可低至0.05,远小于通常在库仑应力计算及相关地震危险性分析中采用的0.4.本文基于库仑应力理论讨论了2016年门源6.4级对2022年门源6.9级地震的应力触发,并讨论了其对青藏高原东北缘地震危险性的指示意义.结果显示：随着有效摩擦系数降低,断层面最大库仑应力加载可达0.013 MPa,表明2016年门源6.4级地震可以增加2022年门源6.9级地震震源区的地震危险性.库仑应力随着有效摩擦系数的降低而增加,暗示祁连—海原断裂带的低有效摩擦系数可以促进2016年门源6.4级地震对2022年门源6.9级地震的应力触发.本文同时给出了祁连—海原断裂带两个库仑应力增强的区域,即西段的托莱山断裂和中段的天祝空段,这两个区域同时也是历史大震破裂空段和断层高闭锁段,预示着这两个断层段未来地震危险性高,值得进一步关注.

     

Seasonal changes in imposex and tissue burden of butyltin compounds in Thais clavigera populations along the coastal area of Mirs Bay,China

We assessed the current status of tributyltin (TBT) contamination of Thais clavigera (Gastropoda) along the coastal area of Mirs Bay, China for the first time. The snail samples were collected from 10 different sites in the summer (June) and winter (December) of 2006, respectively. They were analyzed for imposex status, i.e. relative penis size index (RPSI) and vas deferens sequence index (VDSI), followed by quantification of butyltins in their tissues. Most of the collected females suffered from imposex, but the level of butyltin contamination varied with the distance from Yantian Port, which is currently the fourth busiest container port in the world. The tissue concentration of TBT varied with season. For a particular site, the winter samples in general contained much higher concentration of TBT than the summer samples. RPSI, VDSI and organotin concentrations were higher in T. clavigera collected from sites closer to the Port, such as the Seafood Street and Kat O. Both RPSI and VDSI were positively correlated with the tissue burden of tributyltin. VDSI exhibited little seasonal variability, whereas RPSI showed marked seasonal variability, with lower values in the summer samples. The current results will serve as an important reference for long-term monitoring of butyltin contamination in this area.     

Seasonal changes in imposex and tissue burden of butyltin compounds in Thais clavigera populations along the coastal area of Mirs Bay, China

We assessed the current status of tributyltin (TBT) contamination of Thais clavigera (Gastropoda) along the coastal area of Mirs Bay, China for the first time. The snail samples were collected from 10 different sites in the summer (June) and winter (December) of 2006, respectively. They were analyzed for imposex status, i.e. relative penis size index (RPSI) and vas deferens sequence index (VDSI), followed by quantification of butyltins in their tissues. Most of the collected females suffered from imposex, but the level of butyltin contamination varied with the distance from Yantian Port, which is currently the fourth busiest container port in the world. The tissue concentration of TBT varied with season. For a particular site, the winter samples in general contained much higher concentration of TBT than the summer samples. RPSI, VDSI and organotin concentrations were higher in T. clavigera collected from sites closer to the Port, such as the Seafood Street and Kat O. Both RPSI and VDSI were positively correlated with the tissue burden of tributyltin. VDSI exhibited little seasonal variability, whereas RPSI showed marked seasonal variability, with lower values in the summer samples. The current results will serve as an important reference for long-term monitoring of butyltin contamination in this area.     

Modelling the wave phenomena in acoustic and elastic media with sharp variations of physical properties using the grid‐characteristic method

This paper introduces a novel method of modelling acoustic and elastic wave propagation in inhomogeneous media with sharp variations of physical properties based on the recently developed grid‐characteristic method which considers different types of waves generated in inhomogeneous linear‐elastic media (e.g., longitudinal, transverse, Stoneley, Rayleigh, scattered PP‐, SS‐waves, and converted PS‐ and SP‐waves). In the framework of this method, the problem of solving acoustic or elastic wave equations is reduced to the interpolation of the solutions, determined at earlier time, thus avoiding a direct solution of the large systems of linear equations required by the FD or FE methods. We apply the grid‐characteristic method to compare wave phenomena computed using the acoustic and elastic wave equations in geological medium containing a hydrocarbon reservoir or a fracture zone. The results of this study demonstrate that the developed algorithm can be used as an effective technique for modelling wave phenomena in the models containing hydrocarbon reservoir and/or the fracture zones, which are important targets of seismic exploration.     

A new marine controlled‐source electromagnetic receiver with an acoustic telemetry modem and arm‐folding mechanism

We developed a new marine controlled‐source electromagnetic receiver for detecting methane hydrate zones and oil and gas reservoirs on the seafloor, which is not imaged well by seismic reflection surveys. To determine the seafloor structure, the electromagnetic receiver should have low noise, power consumption, clock drift error, and operating costs while being highly reliable. Because no suitable receiver was available in our laboratory, we developed a new marine controlled‐source electromagnetic receiver with these characteristics; the receiver is equipped with acoustic telemetry modem and an arm‐folding mechanism to facilitate deployment and recovering operations. To demonstrate the applicability of our new receiver, we carried out a field experiment offshore of Guangzhou in the South China Sea, where methane hydrates have been discovered. We successfully obtained controlled‐source electromagnetic data along a profile about 13 km long. All six new receivers were recovered, and high‐quality electromagnetic data were obtained. Relatively high apparent resistivity values were detected. The results of the offshore field experiment support the claim that the electromagnetic data obtained using the new receiver are of sufficient quality for the survey target.