Simulations of mixed-morphology supernova remnants with anisotropic thermal conduction

We explore the role of anisotropic thermal conduction on the evolution of supernova remnants (SNRs) through interstellar media with a range of densities via numerical simulations. We find that a remnant expanding in a dense environment can produce centre-bright hard X-ray emission within 20 kyr, and centre-bright soft X-ray emission within 60 kyr of the supernova event. In a more tenuous environment, the appearance of a centre-bright structure in hard X-rays is delayed until about 60 kyr. The soft X-ray emission from such a remnant may not become centre bright during its observable lifetime. This can explain the observations that show that mixed-morphology SNRs preferentially occur close to denser, molecular environments. Remnants expanding into denser environments tend to be smaller, making it easier for thermal conduction to make large changes in the temperatures of their hot gas bubbles. We show that the lower temperatures make it very favourable to use high-stage ions as diagnostics of the hot gas bubbles in SNRs. In particular, the distribution of O  viii transitions from shell bright at early epochs to centre bright at later epochs in the evolution of an SNR expanding in a dense interstellar medium when the physics of thermal conduction is included.     

On X-ray variability in narrow-line and broad-line active galactic nuclei

We propose a novel mathematical method to construct an exact polytropic sphere in self-gravitating hydrostatic equilibrium, improving the non-linear Poisson equation. The central boundary condition for the present equation requires a ratio of gas pressure to total one at the centre, which is uniquely identified by the whole mass and molecular weight of the system. The special solution derived from the Lane–Emden equation can be reproduced. This scheme is now available for modelling the molecular cloud cores in interstellar media. The mass–radius relation of the first core is found to be consistent with the recent results of radiation hydrodynamic simulations.     

The influence of gravitational acceleration on the supernova-driven Parker instability

Within a framework of 2D magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations, we explore the dynamical regimes initiated by a supernova explosion in a magnetized stratified interstellar medium (ISM). We concentrate on the formation of large-scale magnetic structures and outflows connected with the Parker instability. For the sake of simplicity we only show models with a fixed explosion energy corresponding to a single supernova (SN) occurring in host galaxies with different fixed values of the gravitational acceleration g and different ratios of specific heats. We show that in general, depending on these two parameters, three different regimes are possible: a slowly growing Parker instability on time-scales much longer than the galactic rotation period for small g; the Parker instability growing at roughly the rotation period, which for ratios of specific heats larger than one is accompanied by an outflow resulting from the explosion for intermediate g; and a rapidly growing instability and a strong blow-out flow for large g . By means of numerical simulations and analytical estimates we show that the explosion energy and gravitational acceleration which separate the three regimes scale as Eg ²∼constant in the 2D case. We expect that in the 3D case this scaling law is Eg ³∼constant . Our simulations demonstrate furthermore that a single SN explosion can lead to the growth of multiple Parker loops in the disc and large-scale magnetic field loops in the halo, extending over 2–3 kpc horizontally and up to 3 kpc vertically above the mid-plane of the disc.     

An elementary model for the dust cycle in galaxies

We give an elementary model for the evolution of dust in galaxies, based on abundance arguments. The model takes account of grain core production in both supernovae and giant stars, and includes mantle growth in the interstellar medium. Destruction of grain cores does not appear to be a dominant effect. We show that a self-consistent picture can be made in which the interstellar dust mass is an approximately constant fraction of the heavy element mass in the interstellar medium. This result is demonstrated to be essentially independent of outflow or inflow of interstellar material.     

The chemistry of transient microstructure in the diffuse interstellar medium

Transient microstructure in the diffuse interstellar medium (ISM) has been observed towards Galactic and extragalactic sources for decades, usually in lines of atoms and ions, and, more recently, in molecular lines. Evidently, there is a molecular component to the transient microstructure. In this paper, we explore the chemistry that may arise in such microstructure. We use a photodissociation region (PDR) code to model the conditions of relatively high density, low temperature, very low visual extinction and very short elapsed time that are appropriate for these objects. We find that there is a well-defined region of parameter space where detectable abundances of molecular species might be found. The best matching models are those where the interstellar microstructure is young (<100 yr), small (∼100 au) and dense  (>10⁴ cm⁻³)  .     

Deuterium enrichment of the interstellar medium

Despite the low elemental abundance of atomic deuterium in the interstellar medium (ISM), observational evidence suggests that several species, both in the gas phase and in ices, could be heavily fractionated. We explore various aspects of deuterium enrichment by constructing a chemical evolution model in both gaseous and granular phases. Depending on various physical parameters, gases and grains are allowed to interact with each other through the exchange of their chemical species. It is known that HCO⁺ and N₂H⁺ are two abundant gas phase ions in the ISM and, their deuterium fractionation is generally used to predict the degree of ionization in the various regions of a molecular cloud. For a more accurate estimation, we consider the density profile of a collapsing cloud. The radial distributions of important interstellar molecules, along with their deuterated isotopomers, are presented. Quantum chemical simulations are computed to study the effects of isotopic substitution on the spectral properties of these interstellar species. We calculate the vibrational (harmonic) frequencies of the most important deuterated species (neutral and ions). The rotational and distortional constants of these molecules are also computed in order to predict the rotational transitions of these species. We compare vibrational (harmonic) and rotational transitions as computed by us with existing experimental and theoretical results. It is hope that our results will assist observers in detecting several hitherto unobserved deuterated species.     

The formation of heavy hydrocarbons in molecular clouds

Laboratory data on the conversion of solid methane into large hydrocarbons by particle radiation are used to estimate the fraction of interstellar carbon converted by this process into refractory form. We find that the maximum fraction of carbon that can be converted into refractory form during the life of a dense core within an interstellar cloud is in the range of 1–5 per cent. The implication of this result is that the conversion of enough carbon into refractory form to contribute significantly to interstellar extinction requires the frequent passage of material into and out of dense cores. If so, then interstellar clouds must exist for at least 10 Myr. However, these conclusions should be regarded as preliminary until confirmed by further laboratory studies of the particle irradiation of complex ice mixtures.     

On the influence of cooling and heating processes on the Parker instability – II. Numerical simulations

We investigate the Parker instability (PI) influenced by thermal processes in a non-adiabatic, gravitationally stratified interstellar medium and discuss a model including the photoionization heating together with the supplemental heating mechanisms postulated by Reynolds, Haffner and Tufte. A cooling rate due to radiative losses is described by an approximation to the realistic cooling function of Dalgarno and McCray for ionized interstellar gas. An unperturbed initial state of the system simultaneously represents both a magnetohydrostatic and thermal equilibrium, and is thermally stable. We perform a set of 3D numerical magnetohydrodynamic simulations using the zeusmp code. We find that PI developing in the presence of non-adiabatic effects promotes a transition of gas in magnetic valleys to a thermally unstable regime. We find that the region of initially enhanced density due to PI starts to condense more as the result of thermal instability action. The density in this region rises above the classical isothermal limit of two times the equilibrium value at the mid-plane. The maximum density in an evolved system reaches 10–40 times the equilibrium value at the mid-plane, and the structures so formed attain oval shapes. These results lead to the conclusion that PI, operating in the presence of realistic cooling and heating processes, can trigger the formation of dense clouds, which may give rise to giant molecular complexes.     

The interstellar magnetic field near the Galactic center

We review the current observational knowledge of the interstellar magnetic field within ∼150 pc ofthe Galactic center. We also discuss the various theoretical scenarios that have been put forward to explain the existing observations. Our critical overview leads to two important conclusions: (1) The interstellar magnetic field near the GC is approximately poloidal on average in the diffuse intercloud medium and approximately horizontal in dense interstellar clouds. (2) In the general intercloud medium, the field is relatively weak and probably close to equipartition with cosmic rays (B ∼ (6–20) μ G), but there exist a number of localized filaments where the field is much stronger (some filaments could possibly have B ≳ 1 mG). In dense interstellar clouds, the field is probably rather strong, with typical values ranging between a few 0.1 mG and a few mG (© 2010 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Interfacial instabilities driven by self-gravity: first numerical results

The evolution of the interstellar medium (ISM) is driven by a variety of phenomena, including turbulence, shearing flows, magnetic fields and the thermal properties of the gas. Among the most important forces at work is self-gravity, which ultimately drives protostellar collapse. As part of an ongoing study of instabilities in the ISM, Hunter, Whitaker & Lovelace have discovered another process driven by self-gravity: the instability of an interface of discontinuous density. Theory predicts that this self-gravity driven interfacial instability persists in the static limit and in the absence of a constant background acceleration. Disturbances to a density interface are found to grow on a time-scale of the order of the free-fall time, even when the perturbation wavelength is much less than the Jeans length. Here we present the first numerical simulations of this instability. The theoretical growth rate is confirmed and the non-linear morphology displayed. The self-gravity interfacial instability is shown to be fundamentally different from the Rayleigh–Taylor instability, although both exhibit similar morphologies under the condition of a high density contrast, such as is commonly found in the ISM. Such instabilities are a possible mechanism by which observed features, such as the pillars of gas seen near the boundaries of interstellar clouds, are formed.     

Observational Indicators of Formation Excitation of H2

Theoretical predictions by Farebrother et al. and Meijer et al. of rovibrational excitation probabilities in H₂ arising from formation by Eley-Rideal processes on a graphite surface are incorporated into a model of the chemistry and excitation of interstellar H₂. The model includes the usual radiative and collisional pumping of H₂ rotational and vibrational states, in addition to the formation processes. Predictions are made for HH₂ rovibrational emission line intensities for representative points in diffuse and in dark interstellar clouds. We find that – if all the interstellar HH₂ is formed by this Eley-Rideal process – then the consequences of formation pumping, as distinct from collisional and radiative pumping, should be clearly evident in both cases. In particular, we predict a clear spectral signature of this direct HH₂ formation process on graphite, distinct from radiative and collisional pumping; this signature should be evident in both diffuse and dark clouds; but the emissivity for dark clouds is predicted to be some 500 times greater than that in diffuse clouds in which the dense material may be embedded. An observational search for this signature in two dark cloud sources was made, but a preliminary analysis of the data did not yield a detection. The implications of and possible reasons for this preliminary conclusion are discussed. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Numerical Simulations and Astrophysical Applications of Laboratory Jets at Omega

We have conducted experiments on the Omega laser at the University of Rochester that have produced jets of supersonic Ti impacting and being deflected by a ball of high density plastic. These mm-sized jets of dense plasma are highly complex, have large Reynolds numbers, and, given sufficient time and shear, should produce a fully turbulent flow. The experiments are diagnosed with a point-projection backlighter, resulting in a single image per shot. Simulations of the 3D hydrodynamics capture the large-scale features of the experimental data fairly well while missing some of the smaller scale turbulent-like phenomena. This is to be expected given the limited characterization of the targets as well as the finite resolution of the 3D simulations. If Euler scaling holds, these experiments should model larger astrophysical jets in objects such as HH 110 where an outflow can be seen colliding with a molecular cloud. However, Euler scaling demands that not only the isothermal internal Mach numbers of the two systems be similar but also that any dissipative mechanisms, such as radiative cooling or viscous dissipation, be of equal importance relative to each other. Similar equations of state are required as well. We discuss such issues in the context of these experiments and simulations.     

Charge transfer reactions at interfaces between neutral gas and plasma: Dynamical effects and X‐ray emission

Charge‐transfer is the main process linking neutrals and charged particles in the interaction regions of neutral (or partly ionized) gas with a plasma. In this paper we illustrate the importance of charge‐transfer with respect to the dynamics and the structure of neutral gas‐plasma interfaces. We consider the following phenomena: (1) the heliospheric interface ‐ region where the solar wind plasma interacts with the partly‐ionized local interstellar medium (LISM) and (2) neutral interstellar clouds embedded in a hot, tenuous plasma such as the million degree gas that fills the so‐called “Local Bubble”. In (1), we discuss several effects in the outer heliosphere caused by charge exchange of interstellar neutral atoms and plasma protons. In (2) we describe the role of charge exchange in the formation of a transition region between the cloud and the surrounding plasma based on a two‐component model of the cloud‐plasma interaction. In the model the cloud consists of relatively cold and dense atomic hydrogen gas, surrounded by hot, low density, fully ionized plasma. We discuss the structure of the cloud‐plasma interface and the effect of charge exchange on the lifetime of interstellar clouds. Charge transfer between neutral atoms and minor ions in the plasma produces X‐ray emission. Assuming standard abundances of minor ions in the hot gas surrounding the cold interstellar cloud, we estimate the X‐ray emissivity consecutive to the charge transfer reactions. Our model shows that the charge‐transfer X‐ray emission from the neutral cloud‐plasma interface may be comparable to the diffuse thermal X‐ray emission from the million degree gas cavity itself (© 2012 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Calculations on the rates, mechanisms, and interstellar importance of the reactions between C and NH2 and between N and CH2

The attempt to understand the temperature dependence of the HNC/HCN abundance ratio in interstellar clouds has been long standing and indecisive. In this paper we report quantum chemical and dynamical studies of two neutral–neutral reactions thought to be important in the formation of HNC and HCN, respectively – C+NH₂→HNC+H, and N+CH₂→HCN+H. We find that although these reactions do lead initially to the products suggested by astronomers, there is so much excess energy available in both reactions that the HCN and HNC products are able to undergo efficient isomerization reactions after production. The isomerization leads to near equal production rates of the two isomers, with HNC slightly favoured if there is sufficient rotational excitation. This result has been incorporated into our latest chemical model network of dense interstellar clouds.     

Modelling the effects of dust evolution on the SEDs of galaxies of different morphological type

We present photometric evolution models of galaxies, in which, in addition to the stellar component, the effects of an evolving dusty interstellar medium have been included with particular care. Starting from the work of Calura et al., in which chemical evolution models have been used to study the evolution of both the gas and dust components of the interstellar medium in the solar neighbourhood, elliptical and irregular galaxies, it has been possible to combine these models with a spectrophotometric stellar code that includes dust reprocessing ( grasil ) to analyse the evolution of the spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of these galaxies. We test our models against observed SEDs both in the local universe and at high redshift, and use them to predict how the percentage of reprocessed starlight evolves for each type of galaxy. The importance of following the dust evolution is investigated by comparing our results with those obtained by adopting simple assumptions to treat this component.     

On the detection of interstellar homonuclear diatomic molecules

The pure rotational spectrum of homonuclear diatomic molecules in the interstellar medium is strongly forbidden, and no such spectrum has been detected. In regions of high excitation, vibrational emission may occur, as is widely detected in the case of H₂ in interstellar shocks and photon-dominated regions. However, it is of considerable interest to know the abundance of homonuclear diatomics in quiescent regions. We propose that vibrational emission from homonuclear diatomic molecules in cold clouds may be detectable, where the excitation is mainly through collisions with non-thermal electrons arising from the cosmic-ray ionization of H₂. As an example, we estimate the intensity of emission from N₂ in cold, dark interstellar clouds. We show that such emission is at the limit of detectability with current technology. Other excitation mechanisms may also contribute and enhance this emission.     

Diffuse interstellar bands in low E (B – V) objects

We analyse spectra of slightly reddened, early-type stars in which the major diffuse interstellar bands at 5870 and 5797 Å are either strong or weak in relation to E(B – V) . It is demonstrated that among the low E(B – V) objects one can find stars obscured by 'sigma' as well as 'zeta' type clouds. The profiles of the diffuse bands seem not to be dependent on the total opacities of the interstellar clouds. We also discuss the physical conditions leading to the formation of the diffuse band carriers in low-opacity interstellar clouds; the carriers are apparently formed in media in which one can observe complex velocity fields.     

A study of interstellar Na i D absorption lines towards the Lupus molecular clouds

Intermediate-resolution (60 000 R 120 000) observations of interstellar Na  i lines towards 29 stars in the general direction of the Lupus molecular clouds (330°≲ l ≲350°; 0°≲ b ≲25°) are presented. Previously published spectra towards an additional seven stars are also included. Based on the Hipparcos distances to these stars, and the minimum distance at which strong interstellar Na  i lines appear in the spectra, I obtain a distance of ~150±10 pc to the Lupus molecular complex. While in agreement with a number of other independent estimates, this result is at odds with the value of 100 pc recently obtained by Knude & Høg from a Hipparcos -based study of interstellar extinction. A possible explanation for this discrepancy is discussed, and it is concluded that the value of 150±10 pc obtained here is to be preferred. In addition, these observations have some other implications for the structure of the interstellar medium in this direction, and these are briefly considered.