Influence of Temperature on the Toxicity of Phenol and its Chloro- and Nitro-derivatives to the Fish Notopterus notopterus (PALLAS)

There is determined the LC₅₀ for 24 … 96 h of phenol, 2,4-dinitrophenol and pentachlorophenol as sodium salt by static assay at water temperatures of 16, 23 and 36°C. In addition, the combinations of the three substances were tested in the same way. With decreasing temperature, the toxicity of the individual substances decreased by 6.5 … 22%, that of the mixtures by 10 … 87%; with rising temperature, the toxicity increased by 38 … 747% and 75 … 744%, respectively. The safety limits at 23°C lie between 0.3 μg/l for a synergistically acting mixture and 0.9 mg/l for an antagonistically acting one; for the individual substances this range is 3.5 μg/l to 0.5 mg/l.     

Histological Changes in a Few Tissues of Notopterus notopterus Induced by Sublethal and Lethal Concentrations of Pulp,Paper and Mixed Pulp and Paper Wastes

In the present work, histological changes in the gill, liver, kidney and intestine of Notopterus notopterus, induced by pulp waste, paper waste and mixed pulp and paper waste, have been studied both at sublethal and lethal concentrations. The pulp waste produces much more histological changes both at sublethal and lethal concentrations in the gill, liver, kidney and intestine as compared to paper waste and mixed pulp and paper waste. The changes are much more remarkable in the case of sublethal concentration, as compared to a lethal concentration. In a sublethal concentration, the localized necrosis, atrophy and partial and total liquefaction of epithelial cells, pilaster cells, mucous cells of the gill, hepatic cells of the liver, mesenchymatous cells, renal tubule cells and Bowman's capsule of the kidney, mucosal and submucosal cells and blood vessels of intestine have been observed. In lethal concentration, the changes are much more marked in the gill, as compared to the liver, kidney and intestine. The histological changes, produced in the different types of cells and in the tissue as a whole, can be correlated with the different chemical components present in the pulp waste, paper waste and mixed pulp and paper waste.     

Studies on the Toxicity of a few Pesticides on Colisa fasciatus and Notopterus notopterus with Reference to Histopathology and Histochemistry. Part 1: Bioassay Studies

An attempt has been made to study the toxicity of two commonly used pesticides aldrin (organochlorine) and ethyl-parathion (organophosphorus) to the fish Colisa fasciatus (Anabantidae) and Notopterus notopterus (Notopteridae). During bioassay studies, the behaviour of the fishes was recorded. The aldrin concentration used lies between 0.021 mg/1 and 0.042 mg/1 for C. fasciatus and 0.00056 mg/1 and 0.00135 mg/1 for N. notopterus. The ethyl-parathion concentration used lies between 1.8 mg/1 and 3.7 mg/1 for C. fasciatus and 0.49 mg/1 and 1.00 mg/1 for N. notopterus.

• – The effect of lethal aqueous concentrations of pesticides on the Fishes prior to death are usually manifested by excitation, erratic swimming ability, difficulty in respiration, increasing in ventilation rate, jerky movements of body and fin fast, up- and downward movements, convulsions, loss of equilibrium, loss of the original colour of the body skin and the excess secretion of mucus by the gills and the body wall.
• – the TL_m values for 24, 48 and 96 hours of exposition are determined for both species of fish and both pesticides at the following variables:

• ? three levels of temperature,
• ? three levels of dissolved oxygen,
• ? three levels of pH,
• ? three fish sizes.

• – statistical analysis of variance shows, that all variables have a significant effect on the TL_m values of both pesticides for both fish species;
• – Aldrin (chlorinated hydrocarbon) is more toxic than ethylparathion (organophosphate) at all variables;
• – Colisa fasciatus is the more resistant species than Notopterus notopterus.
• – the relationship between the total number of the fishes N₀, survival numbers N and time t can be expressed by a mathematical formula as:
• – the harmless concentration to C. fasciatus ranged from 0.0049 mg/1 to 0.0161 for aldrin, 0.54 mg/1 to 0.99 mg/1 for ethyl-parathion and to N. notopterus from 0.00012 mg/1 to 0.00045 mg/1 for aldrin, 0.10 mg/1 to 0.21 mg/1 for ethyl-parathion;
• – the aldrin should be diluted at least 4000 times and ethyl-parathion 320 times of its actual concentration.

     

Studies on the Pollution of the Kalinadi by Industrial Wastes Near Mansurpur Part 1: Hydrometric and Physico-Chemical Characteristics of the Wastes and River Water

Stream pollution by industrial wastes is posing a problem in Uttar Pradesh. In the present investigations an attempt has been made to study the ecological features of a section of the Kalinadi so as to find out the cumulative or detrimental effect of pollution on fish and fisheries by the effluent discharge of sugar factory and distillery wastes near Mansurpur (District Muzaffarnagar), U. P. This paper is part I of the project. The liquid wastes produced by the sugar factory vary from 66 × 10⁶ to 88 × 10⁶ litres/day excluding condenser water and contain variable quantities of cane fibres, cellulose, lime, waxes, fermented sugar juice, mollasses, and some quantities of sulphate, phosphate, and nitrogen, the oxygen being nil with high values of B. O. D. and C. O. D. The liquid waste from the distillery is called spent wash. The spent wash (62 × 10⁴ litres/day) is highly coloured and acidic (pH 4.3 … 2.9). The B. O. D. and C. O. D. values were very high in the order of 28,526 mg/1 … 45,146 mg/1 and 52,516 mg/1 to 66,862 mg/1. Thus total waste of about 17.3 × 10⁶ litres with no oxygen and high B. O. D. (9,600 mg/1 … 10,116 mg/1) is let off into the Kalinadi. Hydrometric observations on the Kalinadi show that the pollutional hazard is appreciable during the low flow period of the river. The wastes affect the river in a number of ways:

• - The deposition of cellulose fibres, organic and inorganic matter affects the substratum adversely. The blackish brown colour of the wastes affects the light penetration by limiting the growth of phytoplankton.
• - There appears to be no potential danger to the river from the electrolyte pollution as the specific conductivity lies below limiting values.
• - Changes in pH in river water due to the acidic nature of the wastes do not affect directly the fauna and flora, but the acidic condition becomes lethal in the presence of low oxygen and high temperature values.
• - The high load of organic matter present in the wastes draws heavily on the oxygen budget of the river and adversely changes the water and bottom quality of the river for a stretch of 10 km, which adversely affects the environmental condition of both fish and fish food.
• - The presence of sulphuric acid in distillery waste and hydrogen sulphide in river water is toxic to fish and fish food.
• - The decomposition of organic matter in an anaerobic condition and in another favourable environment, as with a low redox potential, the presence of sufficient organic matter and a constant supply of sulphur-reducing bacteria, produces more hydrogen sulphide which may be detrimental or sublethal in the presence of a low oxygen saturation and high temperature.
• - The oxygen level increases at each succeeding station through reaeration and dilution with the lowering of B. O. D. and C. O. D. The oxygen-sag curve is like a typical spoon with handle-shape.

     

Studies on the Relative Toxicity of few Synthetic Detergents to a Fish Macrones vittatus

In the present investigation static bioassay studies have been made with few synthetic detergents so as to determine the 50 per cent lethal concentration (Lc₅₀) and harmless concentrations. The Lc₅₀ values of these detergents ranged from 0.28 to 1.73 mg/1 (from 6 to 96 hours). The Swascofix E45 is the most highly toxic and Swascol 4 L the least toxic detergent and the other lies between them. The safe concentrations for different detergents have been worked out. On the basis of these data it is suggested that a lot of treatment or dilution is necessary for the safe disposal of these detergent wastes. The regression equation was developed for each detergent for 6, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours interval and the values of Y have been calculated for each time. From these lines, it is clear that an almost straight-line correlation exists between the concentration and the the survival number.     

Changes in Hydra vulgaris PALLAS (Cnidaria) Caused by the Effect of Torak EC 24 Insecticide

Within 24 h time, Torak EC 24 in 10 mg/l and 30 mg/l concentrations causes the worst damage immediately after treatment. In the treated hydras, a considerable state of contraction, a damage of tentacles and the hypostome as well as a damage of intracellular membranes and cellular organelles was observed. Besides, during the experiment, the treated hydras in both concentrations used were budding more intensely than the control.     

Evaluation of Composts from Agricultural Wastes with Fish Pond Sediment as Bulking Agent to Improve Compost Quality

Composts with five different ratios of agricultural wastes, viz. rice straw (RS), wheat straw (WS), potato plant (PP), and mustard stover (MS) were prepared with or without fish pond bottom sediment to investigate the compost maturity and their suitability for field application. The composting process was monitored through the changes in physico‐chemical parameters and germination index (GI) at every 7 days interval of the composting process. All the composts were dark brown and smelled like forest soil within 56 days of composting, which reflected its matured status. On the basis of the physico‐chemical parameters (bulk density: 0.84 g/cm³; pH 7.05; electrical conductivity: 3.52 mS/cm; cation exchange capacity:82.4 cmol/kg; total carbon:321.4 g/kg; total nitrogen: 16.9 g/kg; As: 6.8 mg/kg; Cd: 2.96 mg/kg; Cr: 29.6 mg/kg, Cu: 243.6 mg/kg; Hg: 0.019 mg/kg; Ni: 24.3 mg/kg; Pb: 62.1 mg/kg and Zn: 812 mg/kg) and GI (89–96%), it could be concluded that RS/WS/PP/MS, 1:1:2:1 v/v/v/v with fish pond sediment produced better compost in accordance with the Indian compost standard. Application of a combined randomized block design analysis revealed that there is a significant difference in the responses of the five composts, in relation to the time of composting. Hierarchical clustering algorithm was applied with a view to form homogeneous groups of five different composts on the basis of different physico‐chemical parameters. Therefore, the ratio of waste incorporation is an important decision for composting and addition of pond sediment can improve the quality of compost.     

黄河上游茨哈峡至积石峡段鱼类资源调查(2005-2010年)

2005-2010年对黄河上游茨哈峡至积石峡河段进行鱼类资源调查.结果表明,该河段分布有鱼类39种,分别隶属6目9科29属.鲤形目为主要类群,共2科8亚科20属27种,鲤科16属16种,鳅科4属11种;鲑形目2科3亚科4属5种;鲈形目2科2属4种;鲇形目、鳉形目、合鳃鱼目各1科1属1种.采集到鱼类36种,新增补鱼类7种(其中土著鱼类1种,外来鱼类6种).Margalef丰富度指数为0.692~1.753,香农威纳生物多样性指数为0.796~1.734,Shannon-Wiener改进指数为2.699~9.349,Wilhm改进指数为0.733~1.839,辛普森指数为0.406~0.764,Pielou指数为0.495~0.850.这表明该河段鱼类多样性不高,各样点间差异不显著,但不同水域渔获物组成存在一定的差异.本文对重要土著鱼类和外来鱼类的生态习性进行调查,并对鱼类资源衰退进行分析,提出了保护建议.     

Studies on the Toxicity of Some Insecticides to a Freshwater Teleost Lebistes reticulatus (PETERS)

In batch tests with daily exchange of the medium the toxicity of endosulfan, lindane, aldrin, chlordane, rogor and novocron is investigated during times of exposure of 12… 96 h. The mean survival periods and the LC₅₀ are determined. Toxicity increases in the following sequence (LC_50,96h) (in mg/1): novocron (22.65), rogor (18.97), chlordane (0.341), aldrin (0.017), lindane (0.0160), endosulfan (0.0027). The following safe concentrations in mg/1 are recommended: 0.0006 endosulfan, 0.0041 lindane, 0.0010 aldrin, 0.1436 chlordane, 5.4086 rogor and 7.2309 novocron.     

Acute Toxicity of Some Industrial Effluents in Relation to the Fish Size of Cyprinus carpio (HAM.) and Channa punctatus (BLOCH)

The fish Cyprinus carpio (HAM.) and Channa punctatus (BL.) of the size ranging between 6.0 ± 1.2 cm and 28.0 ± 1.6 cm were exposed to different concentrations of industrial effluents from M/s Punjab Tannery Ltd. (Jalandhar), M/s Spinning Mill Ltd. (Hoshiarpur) and M/s Food Specialist Ltd. (Moga) for evaluating the influence of fish size on the acute toxicity of these effluents. Results indicate that the relative toxicity of the effluents decreased with the increase in fish size from 6.0 ± 1.2 cm to 20.6 ± 1.5 cm. However, for specimens of the size of 28.0 ± 1.6 cm and more, the toxicity of the effluents increased with an increase in fish size. On the basis of the relative toxicity to fish, effluent from Punjab Tannery was found highly toxic and from Food Specialist Industry, the least toxic.     

Studies on the Acute Toxicity of Zinc to a Freshwater Teleost: Channa punctatus (Bloch)

Static bioassay tests were carried out on Channa punctatus Bloch in the laboratory after renewal of concentrations every 24 h. The LC₅₀ values and 95 per cent confidence limits were 45.21 (39.62 … 51.11) ppm at 12 h and 29.8 (27.49 … 31.95) ppm of Zn at 96 h of exposure. The actual dissolution values of zinc were also determined in test solutions using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Behavioural changes were the higher rate of opercular movements, surfacing, loss of equilibrium and haemorrhage near mouth and caudal fin. The LT₅₀ values indicate that survival was increased with decreasing Zn concentration. The histopathological changes observed due to Zn toxicity in the gills have been discussed in relation to fish mortality.     

Studies on the Pollution of the Kalinadi by Industrial Wastes near Mansurpur Part 2: Biological Index of Pollution and Biological Characteristics of the River

From the biological data presented here it is difficult to define any species of fish as an indicator of pollution in the strict sense. Nevertheless, the following generalizations are possible.

• - Species as Wallago attu, Clarias batrachus, Heteropneustes fossilis, Ophiocephalus striatus and Oph. punctatus occur in good number in the polluted stretch and seem to be tolerant species.
• - The species as Esomus danrica, Labeo rohita, Labeo gonius, L. bata, Catla catla, Cirrhina mrigala, Barbus chagunio, Barbus spec., Notopterus notopterus and Mugil corsula are most sensitive and disappear first in the polluted stretch.
• - The species as Barilius bola, B. bendelisis, Nemacheilus latius, Notopterus chitala, Collichrous bimaculatus, and Nandus nandus are moderately sensitive.
• - It appears that the main damage is caused to carp and feather-back fishes. The whole stretch of heavy pollution is almost devoid of carp and featherback.

The following important conclusions can be drawn from the distribution of plankton and bottom organisms:

• - The higher number of protozoans, chironomids, maggots and the decrease in the number of mollusca can be considered as the indicator of pollution, because of their abundance in polluted zones.
• - Chlorella, Lyngbya, Gyrosigma and Euglena (algae), Viviparius (mollusc) and Bosmina (crustacea) are very sensitive to pollution.
• - Oscillatoria, Pandorina, Anabaena, Nitzschia, Closterium (algae), Branchionus, Rotatoria (rotifers) and Naidium (annelid) are moderately sensitive.
• - Synedra, Spirogyra, Desmidium, Rivularia, Navicula, Fragillaria Phacus, Arcella and Vorticella are fairly tolerant forms.
• The stretch studied has been subdivided into five zones with characteristic features:
• - The Oligosaprobic Zone - characterized by a sufficient oxygen saturation, low B. O. D. and C. O. D., with a good fauna and flora.
• - The Polysaprobic Zone - with low oxygen saturation, high B. O. D. and C. O. D. and hydrogen sulphides with a restricted fauna and flora.
• - The α-Mesosaprobic zone - with moderate oxygen saturation, moderate B. O. D. and C. O. D. traces of hydrogen sulphide with the improvement of the fauna and flora.
• - The β-Mesosaprobic Zone - with fair oxygen saturation, low B. O. D. and C. O. D., with the reappearence of fauna and flora.
• - The Oligosaprobic Zone - similar to the zone of low pollution in all characteristics.

     

Toxicity of Distillery Effluent to the Cyprinid Weed Fish Rasbora daniconius (Ham).

The toxicity of distillery wastes to the fish Rasbora daniconius was tested by bioassay. Ten concentrations ranging from 1.0 to 100% were employed. It was found that the fish were quite tolerant at the 1% concentration for about 24 hours of exposure and survived even up to 96 hours. Mortality was noticed in concentrations from 1.5% onwards. In the concentrations of 3.0% and above there was a heavy mortality beginning at 15 hours of exposure. From the chemistry of the medium studied it was found that the toxicity was inversely proportional to pH but directly proportional to conductivity and bicarbonate alkalinity of the medium.     

Studies on the Effect of DDT on the Regeneration of Cutaneous Wounds in Mystus (mystus) vittatus Bl. (Bagridae)

The effects of DDT on the regeneration of cutaneous wounds has been studied in Mystus (mystus) vittatus. The fishes were locally collected, they were inflicted incised wounds surgically and kept in 0.01 and 0.15 ppm concentrations of DDT. The regenerating skin at different stages of development ranging from 15 min to 25 d after the injury was studied through microtomy sections. The following toxic effects were studied:

• A small amount of DDT accumulated in the subcutis at the 25 days stage,
• the regeneration of wounds under DDT stress has been slower, delayed or irregular,
• the secretion of fibrinous exudate has been copious,
• epithelization and fibroblastic activities have been slower,
• the higher concentration of 0.15 ppm of DDT produced more toxic effects than the lower concentration of 0.01 ppm,
• the earlier stages of wound healing up to 3 d have been more adversely affected than later stages.

     

Hydrogeological Studies to Identify the Trend of Concealed Section of the North Tabriz Fault (Iran)

The North Tabriz Fault (NTF) is the predominant regional‐scale tectonic structure in the northwest of Iran. In the east side of the city of Tabriz, a portion of the fault trend has been completely concealed by recent sediments and urbanization. In this paper, some hydrogeological methods are used to locate the concealed sector. As is clear from the pumping tests results, despite the fact that the northern observation wells were closer to the pumping wells than the southern ones, they have not been affected by pumping. Conversely, all southern wells were affected by pumping and displayed decline of the water table. In addition, obvious differences in groundwater levels combined with clear differences in groundwater quality within a short distance across the probable fault trend are sufficient reasons for the presence of the fault that behaves as a barrier to groundwater lateral flows. Significant change in the elevation of the bedrock base of the aquifer over less than 200 m suggests that the fault has near vertical dip. These results indicate that the inferred trend of the NTF closely conforms to its actual trend. Therefore, the hydrogeological studies can be complementary tools to determine the position and trend of concealed faults.     

Biocides in Relation to Water Pollution Part I: Bioassay Studies on the Effects of a few Biocides on Fresh Water Fish,Channa gachua

• - In the present paper the toxicity of four biocides, endrin, thiodon, malathion and phosvel, has been measured by performing static bioassay experiments with Channa gachua as test fish to establish the median Tolerance Limits (TL_m and TL₅₀).
• - The results of bioassay experiments indicate that the fish is harmed even at a very low concentration of these biocides. The values of TL_m are 0.0076, 0.0073, 0.00695 and 0.0068 for endrin; 0.01120, 0.01088, 0.01069 and 0.01064 for thiodon; 9.20, 8.10, 7.90 and 7.60 for malathion and 32.90, 32.10, 31.65 and 31.15 mg/l for phosvel for the time interval of 24, 48, 76 and 96 hours, respectively.
• - As indicated by TL_m's, endrin is most toxic and phosvel least. Thiodon and malathion came in a descending order between endrin and phosvel.
• - During bioassay studies, the effect of some variables, like temerature, pH and fish-size, on TL_m's has also been observed. They gave the following results.
• a) An increase in temperature increased the toxicity of all the biocides.
• b) An increase in pH decreased the TL_m as such, making the biocides more toxic to Channa gachua.
• c) For larger fishes, the biocide solutions were less toxic, but the same solutions were more toxic to fishes of a smaller size.
• - The safe harmless concentrations of endrin, thiodon, malathion and phosvel are - 0.00289 mg/l, 0.00337 mg/l, 1.88365 mg/l and 9.16736 mg/l, respectively.

     

Effectiveness of Monitored Natural Attenuation (MNA) as a Groundwater Remedy for Arsenic in Phosphatic Wastes

A study was conducted to evaluate monitored natural attenuation (MNA) as a remedy for arsenic in groundwater at a former phosphate mining and manufacturing facility. The mineralogy, speciation, and lability of arsenic in phosphatic wastes present in soils were characterized using sequential extraction procedures, leaching experiments, batch adsorption tests, and microchemical speciation analysis. A PHREEQC-based reactive transport model was also parameterized using these laboratory results, and it was used to evaluate the importance of identified attenuation mechanisms on arsenic concentrations along a vertical flow path from a shallow, alluvial aquifer to the underlying Floridan aquifer. Arsenic was found to occur in several chemical forms in phosphatic wastes, including unstable sulfide minerals, adsorbed surface complexes, and relatively insoluble phosphate and oxide minerals. Most arsenic was associated with stable minerals. The reactive transport model predicted that historical leaching of solid-phase waste materials in soils would not have generated enough arsenic to explain the concentrations observed in downgradient groundwater; instead, the source of arsenic to groundwater was likely acidic and saline process water that infiltrated though unlined ponds and ditches during historical manufacturing operations. A key factor affecting the long-term effectiveness of natural attenuation of arsenic in groundwater is the occurrence and stability of iron oxyhydroxides in aquifer sediments. According to laboratory and reactive transport model results, sufficient levels were found to be present at the site to effectively limit arsenic migration at concentrations exceeding drinking water standards in the future in the Floridan aquifer. This study presents the geochemical evaluations that are needed to satisfy EPA guidelines on determining whether or not MNA is an acceptable remedy for a site. It specifically details the characterization and modeling that were used to demonstrate effectiveness at a site where MNA was ultimately selected as the remedy for arsenic in groundwater.     

Toxicity of Crude Oil to the Survival of the Fresh Water Fish Puntius sophore (HAM.)

The exposure of Puntius sophore to different concentrations of crude oil (200… 4000 ppm) revealed that 4000 ppm was acutely lethal to the fish and mortality did not occur at <500 ppm at 21±1 °C for up to 15 days. The increase in the opercular frequency during exposure to crude oil has been recorded almost parallel to toxicant concentrations. The objectionable odour of the crude oil and the formation of coagulated mucous film over the body and gills were the main factors causing mortality among the experimental fish. The 24, 48, 78 and 96-h TL 50 values have been 3275, 1750, 1650 and 1450 ppm. The corresponding regression coefficients b were –1.8056, –1.5849, –1.6037 and –1.6497.