泄水式管片衬砌泄流量对衬砌外荷载的影响研究

提出了采用泄水式管片衬砌结构型式解决铁路隧道高水压问题的结构设计理念。考虑渗流场对围岩应力场的影响,建立了水荷载为渗透体积力的管片衬砌外荷载计算公式,探讨了围岩渗透系数与最大可泄流量、衬砌控制泄流量与衬砌壁后接触应力的相互关系,以及围岩条件对衬砌壁后有效应力和接触应力的影响规律,并将该计算方法与远场水荷载视为面力的简易衬砌外荷载计算方法进行对比,以评估简易方法的可行性。结果表明：将水荷载视为面力与将其视为渗透体积力进行接触应力计算时,两者结果仅在一定条件下具有良好的接近度,前者只能作为衬砌外荷载选择的一种参考。     

地下松散层内疏放水钻孔溃砂量模拟试验

本文通过室内模型试验研究地下疏放钻孔揭穿松散含水层时影响溃砂量大小的因素,试验模拟了6种不同直径的疏放水钻孔揭露4种不同粒径的含水砂层时,溃砂量与钻孔直径和砂粒径之间的关系。试验表明:砂粒径越小,最终溃砂量越大。对于同一粒径的砂来说,钻孔直径越大,溃砂的速度越快,溃砂量随时间呈直线下降;钻孔直径小于15mm时,溃砂速度比较缓,溃砂量随时间变化的曲线为抛物线。     

Dispersion of the salt-marsh periwinkle Littoraria irrorata: Effects of water level,size, and season

This paper documents horizontal and vertical dispersion patterns of a Texas population of the saltmarsh periwinkle, Littoraria irrorata, over a 15-month period. The study was conducted within a tidal marsh on the Anahuac National Wildlife Refuge in Galveston Bay. Two mark-recapture experiments demonstrated that L. irrorata rarely move more than 2 m from their release point over long periods of time and do not home to individual Spartina plants. Adult L. irrorata forage farther away from the base of Spartina stalks at low tide than do juvenile snails. Remaining near the plant base may decrease both temperature and desiccation stress on juveniles. During warm months, L. irrorata climb grass stalks with tidal inundation and forage on the substratum at low tide. Snails are inactive and aggregate in detrital debris at the base of Spartina clumps during the winter. *** DIRECT SUPPORT *** A01BY058 00016     

考虑参数不确定性的地表水与地下水交换量的计算方法

在计算地表水与地下水的交换量时,常规的方法是对实际获取的渗透系数采用集中式数学模型或者分布程度较低的分布式模型,使用以代表观测井为中心的泰森多边形划分计算区域。本研究在考虑实际获取的渗透系数基础上,进一步考虑参数空间分布的不确定性,利用渗透系数服从对数正态分布的已有研究成果,使用数字仿真技术,另外考虑地表水水位、地下水水位的动态变化对渗流方向的影响,在常规方法的基础上,基于D8算法提出改进,使用分布式模型计算地表水与地下水交换量,并与常规方法的结果进行对比。结果表明常规方法计算的交换量结果偏小,两者水位动态变化对渗流方向的影响显著。     

An analysis of the balance of operational water discharge using a combined water-intake system

Possibilities of increasing the available water resources of small-river basins using combined water-intake systems are considered. The modern system of water intake, whose balance is supplied at the expense of reduced river flow, remains the main water-intake system. During low-water periods, a compensation water-intake system is used for maintaining the minimum permissible stream flow. The sources of compensation water-intakes are analyzed.     

Flow paths of water and sediment in a tidal marsh: Relations with marsh developmental stage and tidal inundation height

This study provides new insights in the relative role of tidal creeks and the marsh edge in supplying water and sediments to and from tidal marshes for a wide range of tidal inundation cycles with different high water levels and for marsh zones of different developmental stage. Net import or export of water and its constituents (sediments, nutrients, pollutants) to or from tidal marshes has been traditionally estimated based on discharge measurements through a tidal creek. Complementary to this traditional calculation of water and sediment balances based on creek fluxes, we present novel methods to calculate water balances based on digital elevation modeling and sediment balances based on spatial modeling of surface sedimentation measurements. In contrast with spatial interpolation, the presented approach of spatial modeling accounts for the spatial scales at which sedimentation rates vary within tidal marshes. This study shows that for an old, high marsh platform, dissected by a well-developed creek network with adjoining levees and basins, flow paths are different for tidal inundation cycles with different high water levels: during shallow inundation cycles (high water level <0.2 m above the creek banks) almost all water is supplied via the creek system, while during higher inundation cycles (high water level >0.2 m) the percentage of water directly supplied via the marsh edge increases with increasing high water level. This flow pattern is in accordance with the observed decrease in sedimentation rates with increasing distance from creeks and from the marsh edge. On a young, low marsh, characterized by a gently seaward sloping topography, material exchange does not take place predominantly via creeks but the marsh is progressively flooded starting from the marsh edge. As a consequence, the spatial sedimentation pattern is most related to elevation differences and distance from the marsh edge. Our results imply that the traditional measurement of tidal creek fluxes may lead in many cases to incorrect estimations of net sediment or nutrient budgets.     

南黄海大型潮汐水道动力地貌环境对人类活动响应——以小庙洪水道为例

辐射沙脊群内潮汐水道由于没有固定的边界，其稳定性对人类活动影响更加敏感。通过收集近20年来辐射沙脊群南翼小庙洪海域实测高分辨率水下地形资料，结合数学模型分析研究人类活动对小庙洪海域水动力和地形冲淤累积影响。研究结果表明：近20年来小庙洪水域边滩匡围面积达126.09 km²，边滩匡围导致小庙洪尾部、中部及口门段断面流量分别减小14.2%、15.79%和9.13%；尾部、中部及口门段深槽区平均流速分别减小20~30 cm/s、10~20 cm/s和5~10 cm/s。小庙洪水道南侧-5 m等深线变化幅度较小，基本保持稳定状态；-10 m等深线继续向西延伸，向南拓展。近20年来小庙洪边滩匡围虽导致水道内纳潮量和水动力有所减弱，但由于目前匡围区均处于高滩区域，各匡围工程所引起的泥沙冲淤仅限于工程区附近，对小庙洪水道整体稳定性、深槽主轴南逼、口门水道整体北淤南冲的演变趋势没有产生明显影响。     

南黄海大型潮汐水道动力地貌环境对人类活动响应——以小庙洪水道为例

辐射沙脊群内潮汐水道由于没有固定的边界，其稳定性对人类活动影响更加敏感。通过收集近20年来辐射沙脊群南翼小庙洪海域实测高分辨率水下地形资料，结合数学模型分析研究人类活动对小庙洪海域水动力和地形冲淤累积影响。研究结果表明:近20年来小庙洪水域边滩匡围面积达126.09 km2，边滩匡围导致小庙洪尾部、中部及口门段断面流量分别减小14.2%、15.79%和9.13%；尾部、中部及口门段深槽区平均流速分别减小20~30 cm/s、10~20 cm/s和5~10 cm/s。小庙洪水道南侧-5 m等深线变化幅度较小，基本保持稳定状态；-10 m等深线继续向西延伸，向南拓展。近20年来小庙洪边滩匡围虽导致水道内纳潮量和水动力有所减弱，但由于目前匡围区均处于高滩区域，各匡围工程所引起的泥沙冲淤仅限于工程区附近，对小庙洪水道整体稳定性、深槽主轴南逼、口门水道整体北淤南冲的演变趋势没有产生明显影响。     

Seasonality of materials transport through a coastal freshwater marsh: Riverine versus tidal forcing

Transports of nitrate and suspended solids were measured six times from January 1984 until January 1985 in a small freshwater tidal bayou in south-central Louisiana. The bayou and adjacent marshes are influenced by Atchafalaya River discharges, tides, and coastal weather patterns. Large net ebb-directed water transports occurred in winter, spring, and summer, coincident with high river discharges, indicating riverine dominance. A very small net flood-directed water transport occurred in fall, indicating tidally dominated hydrology. Nitrate and suspended solids transports were net ebb-directed in all seasons, but were two orders of magnitude higher during high river flow. Exports changed as hydrology switched from river dominated to tidally dominated, and as concentrations of materials changed. Comparison of suspended solids and nitrate concentrations in the river and bayou shows that these materials were usually lower in the bayou, indicating retention by the marsh/aquatic system.     

Intradaily variability of water quality in a shallow tidal lagoon: Mechanisms and implications

Although surface water quality and its underlying processes vary over time scales ranging from seconds to decades, they have historically been studied at the lower (weekly to interannual) frequencies. The aim of this study was to investigate intradaily variability of three water quality parameters in a small freshwater tidal lagoon (Mildred Island, California). High frequency time series of specific conductivity, water temperature, and chlorophylla at two locations within the habitat were analyzed in conjunction with supporting hydrodynamic, meteorological, biological, and spatial mapping data. All three constituents exhibited large amplitude intradaily (e.g., semidiurnal tidal and diurnal) oscillations, and periodicity varied across constituents, space, and time. Like other tidal embayments, this habitat is influenced by several processes with distinct periodicities including physical controls, such as tides, solar radiation, and wind, and biological controls, such as photosynthesis, growth, and grazing. A scaling approach was developed to estimate individual process contributions to the observed variability. Scaling results were generally consistent with observations and together with detailed examination of time series and time derivatives, revealed specific mechanisms underlying the observed periodicities, including interactions between the tidal variability, heating, wind, and biology. The implications for monitoring were illustrated through subsampling of the data set. This exercise demonstrated how quantities needed by scientists and managers (e.g., mean or extreme concentrations) may be misrepresented by low frequency data and how short-duration high frequency measurements can aid in the design and interpretation of temporally coarser sampling programs. The dispersive export of chlorophylla from the habitat exhibited a fortnightly variability corresponding to the modulation of semidiurnal tidal currents with the diurnal cycle of phytoplankton variability, demonstrating how high frequency interactions can govern long-term trends. Process identification, as through the scaling analysis here, can help us anticipate changes in system behavior and adapt our own interactions with the system.     

An experimental study of the water transfer through confined compacted GMZ bentonite

GMZ bentonite has been considered as a possible material for engineered barrier in the Chinese program of nuclear waste disposal at great depth. In the present work, the hydraulic conductivity of this bentonite was determined by simultaneous profile method. A specific infiltration cell equipped with five resistive relative humidity probes was designed for this purpose. The water retention properties were studied under both confined and unconfined conditions; the results show that at high suctions (> 4 MPa) the water retention capacity is independent of the confining condition, and by contrast, at low suctions (< 4 MPa) the confined condition resulted in significant low water retention. Furthermore, the microstructure was investigated at mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM) in different states: on oven-dried powder, bentonite slurry, as-compacted and wetted samples. It has been observed that the soil powder is constituted of aggregates of various sizes; these aggregates are destroyed by full saturation at a water content equal to the liquid limit; compaction at the initial water content of 11–12% and a dry density of 1.7–1.75 Mg/m³ led to a microstructure characterized by a dense assembly of relatively well preserved aggregates; saturation of the compacted sample under constant volume condition defined a non-homogeneous microstructure with the presence of well preserved aggregates. This non-homogeneous microstructure would be due to the non uniform distribution of the generated swelling pressure within the soil sample upon wetting. The hydraulic conductivity determined has been found decreasing first and then increasing with suction decrease from the initial value of about 80 MPa to zero; the decrease can be attributed to the large pore clogging due to soft gel creation by exfoliation process, as observed at ESEM.     

The equilibration of clay minerals with sea water: exchange reactions

Studies of seawater-sediment and seawater-clay mineral exchange equilibria demonstrate that rinsing procedures employed in many previous studies have grossly shifted the exchange equilibria away from the true seawater conditions. Exchange complements have been determined here by measurement of compositional changes in seawater that result from reaction with clays, thereby avoiding rinsing. These data show that exchangeable Na⁺ is normally greater than or equal to exchangeable Mg²⁺ on clays and sediments in exchange equilibrium with seawater.On introduction to seawater, fluvial clays are shown to give up their exchangeable Ca²⁺ for Na⁺, a process of importance in the geochemical budget of Na⁺.     

Indirect environmental effects of dikes on estuarine tidal channels: Thinking outside of the dike for habitat restoration and monitoring

While the most obvious effects of dike construction and marsh conversion are those affecting the converted land (direct or intended effects), less immediately apparent effects also occur seaward of dikes (indirect or unintended effects). I analyzed historical photos of the Skagit River delta marshes (Washingto, U.S.) and compared changes in estuarine marsh and tidal channel surface area from 1956–2000 in the Wiley slough area of the South fork Skagit delta, and from 1937–2000 in the North Fork delta. Dike construction in the late 1950s caused the loss of 80 ha of estuarine marsh and 6.7 ha of tidal channel landward of the Wiley Slough dikes. A greater amount of tidal channel surface area, 9.6 ha, was lost seaward of the dikes. Similar losses were observed for two smaller North Fork tidal channel systems. Tidal channels far from dikes did not show comparable changes in channel surface areas. These results are consistent with hydraulic geometry theory, which predicts that diking reduces tidal flushing in the undiked channel remnants and this results in sedimentation. Dikes may have significant seaward effects on plants and animals associated with tidal channel habitat. Another likely indirect dike effect is decreased sinuosity in a distributary channel of the South Fork Skagit River adjacent to and downstream of the Wiley Slough dikes, compared to distributary channels upstream or distant from the dikes. Loss of floodplain area to diking and marsh conversion prevents flood energy dissipation over the marsh surface. The distributary channal has responded to greater flood energy by increasing mean channel width and decreasing sinuosity. Restoration of diked areas should consider historic habitat loss swaward of dikes, as well as possible benefits to these areas from dike breaching or removal. Habitat restoration by breaching or removal of dikes should be monitored in areas directly affected by dikes, areas indirectly affected, and distinct reference areas.     

高吸水材料改善高含水率淤泥流动性的试验研究

城市疏浚和建设过程中产生的高含水率淤泥具有高流动性的典型特点,导致此类淤泥运输、周转都极为不便。开展了利用高吸水材料改善淤泥流动性的试验,研究结果表明,淤泥的流动性随着含水率的升高而显著上升,曲线拟合结果显示两者之间近似成二次函数关系。通过添加较少量的高吸水材料就可以使淤泥的流动性迅速降低到非常利于运输和周转的程度;引入“净流动值”定量地描述高吸水材料对淤泥流动性的改善效果,不同初始含水率的淤泥在添加一定比例的高吸水材料后其“净流动值”降低比例处于相同水平;高吸水材料对淤泥流动性的改善效果在极短时间内可以得到显著体现,未进行充分搅拌混合的情况下淤泥流动值改善就已接近最优值,搅拌的持续时间和强度对淤泥流动性改善效果并无明显影响,工程应用时的工作耗时和工作强度将会明显降低。     

碱性花岗岩的动力学氧同位素交换和流体流动几何学：交换机制和平流冷却

新疆北部乌仑古塔斯嘎克碱性花岗岩体分为主体相和北部边缘相。条纹长石广泛发育出溶；石英与碱性长石复杂交生。条纹长石的出溶衍生出压应力，造成石英的变形。大部分钠铁闪石是由霓辉石交代形成的。在δ^18O石英-δ^18O条纹长石和δ^18O石英-δ^18O钠铁闪石协变图上，应用耦合的质量传输和动力学限制的同位素交换模型对样品进行了模拟。相对交换速率常数和3个矿物的显微组构特征共同指示，表面反应即溶解-再沉淀和管道扩散是氧同位素交换的主要机制。大气降水从塔斯嘎克碱性花岗岩的北部边缘相住主体相发生了平流渗透。北部边缘相样品的较陡的斜率、以及石英和条纹长石较低的^18O亏损程度，被解释为是由于与同位素组成未演化的短路径大气降水在相对较短的时限内发生氧同位素交换造成的。但是，与同位素组成演化了的长路径大气降水在相对较长的时限内的相互作用，导致了主体样品的较缓的斜率以及石英和条纹长石的较高程度的^18O亏损。对于一个侵入岩体的冷却来说，平流冷却与传导冷却一样重要。     

Estimating groundwater recharge through tills: a sensitivity analysis of soil moisture budgets and till properties in Ireland

The study highlights the dangers of limiting recharge calculations in humid climates to meteorological and soil considerations. It highlights the importance of developing a conceptual understanding of the influence of geology on recharge mechanisms and recharge rates. Uncertainties in recharge estimates through tills are examined by a study of the available literature, combined with sensitivity analyses of soil moisture budget parameters and of hypothetical scenarios of till properties and hydraulic gradients that are realistic for Irish conditions. The sensitivity analyses demonstrate that till properties have a greater influence over recharge than the soil moisture budgeting parameters. Results are considered in terms of recharge coefficients, representing the proportion of effective precipitation that becomes actual recharge to the aquifer. The literature review identifies a range in recharge coefficients from 4% to 90% in selected field and catchment scale studies from bedrock aquifers in Ireland and the U.K. The sensitivity analyses are able to simulate a similar range in recharge coefficient of 2% to 80% by varying only till permeability, thickness and vertical hydraulic gradients. In the scenarios examined, the greatest sensitivity to vertical till permeability lies between 0.001 m/day and 0.01 m/day. The sensitivity to soil moisture budgeting parameters is much less apparent. It is concluded that this is due to the dominance of grassland in Ireland and the relatively wet summers, resulting in the limited development of soil moisture deficits by comparison with some parts of the U.K.

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Résumé Cette étude met en lumière les dangers résultants de la pratique consultant à limiter les calculs de recharge aux données météorologiques ainsi qu’aux considérations liées au sol. Elle met en lumière l’importance de développer des modèles conceptuels comprenant l’influence de la géologie sur les mécanismes de la recharge et les taux de recharge. Les incertitudes sur les estimations de la recharge à travers les argiles sont examinées à travers les données disponibles dans la littérature, combinées avec une analyse de sensibilité des paramètres du bilan hydrique et des scénarios hypothétiques reprenant les propriétés des argiles et les gradients hydrauliques qui sont réalistes dans le contexte irlandais de l’étude. Les analyses de sensibilité démontrent que les propriétés des argiles ont une plus grande influence sur la recharge que les paramètres du bilan hydrique des sols. Les résultats sont considérés en terme de coefficients de recharge, représentant la proportion de précipitation effective qui devient la recharge réelle de l’aquifère. La littérature identifie des coefficients de recharge allant de 4 à 90% sur des terrains sélectionnés à l’échelle de bassins-versants, sur les aquifères de socle en Irlande et au Royaume-Uni. Les analyses de sensibilité sont capables de simuler une variation aussi large de coefficients de recharge, en ne changeant rien que la perméabilité des argiles, leur épaisseur et les gradients hydrauliques verticaux. Dans les scénarios étudiés, la meilleure sensibilité à la perméabilité verticale se situe entre 0.001 et 0.01 m/jour. La sensibilité au bilan hydrique est beaucoup moins apparente. On en conclut que ceci est du à la dominance des prairies en Ireland et aux étés relativement humides, résultant des déficits en eau des sols relativement modérés en comparaison avec certaines zones du Royaume-uni.

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Resumen El estudio resalta los peligros de limitar los cálculos de recarga en climas húmedos a las consideraciones meteorológicas y del suelo. Se destaca la importancia de desarrollar un entendimiento conceptual de la influencia de la geología en los mecanismos de recarga y los ritmos de recarga. Se examinan las incertidumbres en los estimados de recarga a través de tills mediante un estudio de la literatura disponible combinado con análisis de sensibilidad de parámetros de balance de humedad del suelo y de escenarios hipotéticos de las propiedades del till y gradientes hidráulicos que son realistas para condiciones típicas de Irlanda. Los análisis de sensibilidad demuestran que las propiedades del till tienen una influencia más grande en la recarga que los parámetros del balance de humedad del suelo. Se consideran los resultados en términos de coeficientes de recarga, representando la proporción de precipitación efectiva que se convierte en recarga real al acuífero. La revisión de literatura identifica un rango de coeficientes de recarga que varía de 4% a 90% en estudios seleccionados de cuencas y escala de campo realizados en acuíferos de macizo rocoso en Irlanda y el Reino Unido. Los análisis de sensibilidad pueden simular un rango similar en los coeficientes de recarga de 2% a 80% al variar únicamente la permeabilidad del till, el espesor y los gradientes verticales hidráulicos. En los escenarios examinados, la relación de sensibilidad más grande con la permeabilidad vertical del till se encuentra entre 0.001 m/día y 0.01 m/día. La sensibilidad en relación a los parámetros del balance de humedad del suelo es mucho menos aparente. Se concluye que esto se debe a la predominancia de tierras con hierba en Irlanda y los veranos relativamente húmedos, lo que resulta en el desarrollo limitado de déficit de humedad de suelo en comparación con algunas partes del Reino Unido.

     

Modification of the quality of water injected into Louisiana gulf coast sands: Effects of cation exchange

Interest in artificially recharging selected shallow sands in South Louisiana with fresh water has been stimulated by the desire to retard contamination of municipal groundwater supplies by brackish water, to retard ground subsidence and decrease pumping lifts, and to develop emergency subsurface supplies of potable water for communities dependent on surface waters susceptible to contamination. Results of field experiments, laboratory work, and model calculations demonstrate that ion exchange reactions involving clays dispersed in aquifer sands can be expected to modify significantly the composition of waters injected into Gulf Coast sediments. As little as 0.1 weight percent smectite (montmorillonite) can remove, by exchange with absorbed Na, a significant fraction of the dissolved Ca and Mg present in the injected water. The hardness of the water is thus reduced, which may be a desirable modification in water quality. Exchange occurs as fast as the fluids can be pumped into or out of the aquifer, and the water-softening capacity of the aquifer can be restored by allowing sodium-rich native pore waters to sweep back over the dispersed clays. Each acre of an aquifer 50 feet thick and containing 0.1 wt % smectite could soften half a million gallons of injected Mississippi River water. Many individual Gulf Coast aquifers underlie tens of thousands of acres, and their potential softening capacity is thus enormous. Additional exchange processes involving adjacent aquitard shales presumably will operate over long-term periods. It is possible that Gulf Coast aquifers will be used at some point in the future as processing plants to treat injected water to improve its quality for a variety of municipal and industrial purposes.     

Extraction of uranium ions from water: a rapid and convenient method using prepackaged ion exchange resins

Ion exchange resins are used successfully to extract and concentrate uranium ions from aqueous solutions although the procedures are time consuming. They utilize rather cumbersome resin columns, and consequently they have found little practical application in large geochemical surveys of isolated areas. An alternative approach using resin packages is proposed. The “package” is a teabag — convenient, cheap, disposable, and readily sealed. Laboratory and field tests indicate that the method combines simplicity, speed and economy with excellent precision and detection limits. Although the packaging procedure was designed specifically for the extraction of uranium from natural waters under field conditions, the method can be modified to extract elements other than uranium and presents a viable alternative to resin columns in a standard laboratory.     

An Index for Estimating the Stability of Brittle Surrounding Rock Mass: FAI and its Engineering Application

Based on the geometric analysis of the relationship between the stress state at a point and the yield surface defined in the principal stress space, a coefficient ω is set up as an estimation index to describe the stress-induced yield risk. After yield, the equivalent plastic shear strains is usually used to characterize the failure degree (FD) of the material and adopted here as an index of the damage degree for the surrounding rock masses. Then, a unified variable combining ω and FD, named failure approaching index (FAI), is constructed to estimate the stability of rock mass which may be at different deformation stages. The formulas of FAI are derived for some popular yield criteria in geomechanics. Details for such development are addressed in the paper. Its rationality is verified by numerical simulation and comparative analysis of the conventional triaxial compression tests and typical tunnel projects. In addition, the method for applying FAI to the stability estimation of surrounding rock mass is proposed. As examples, the stability of the underground powerhouse, access tunnels and headrace tunnels at the Jinping II hydropower station are estimated by making use of the method we presented. The results indicate that not only is the index rational in mechanics, but the theory also has good expansibility, and the estimation methods are simple and practical as well. It is easier for field engineers to analyze and understand the numerical results.     

Estimated volume of water in shallow wells of Ekiti State,Southwestern Nigeria: implications on groundwater sustainability

Volumes of water in shallow wells of Ekiti State Southwestern Nigeria was estimated during the rainy and dry seasons of 2017 to categorize the area into different groundwater potential zones and to scrutinize it for groundwater sustainability and development. Locations of the wells were measured using etrex 12 Channel GPS while dip meter was employed for the water levels and depths of wells. The volume of water in a well was estimated employing V = πr²h (r and h are radius and water column of well, respectively). The wells in the area have low water storage (av. 6.91m³ and 2.70m³ in rainy and dry seasons, respectively). The study area had sufficient quantity of water in the rainy season to meet domestic, agricultural, and industrial requirements as deficiency was met from rainfall replenishment. Groundwater potential evaluation revealed that majority of the study area fell into very poor to poor water categories. Groundwater sustainability and development in the study area is a herculean task due to uncoordinated sitting of wells, low storage of water in the aquifers, and erratic occurrence of the groundwater. Hygiene education should be intensified in the area to forestall the risks post by the principal elements of fecal oral disease transmission.