喀什地区浮尘天气特征及一次重污染天气成因分析

根据1961—2018年喀什地区9个国家站浮尘日数逐日观测资料,利用气候学统计、M-K突变检验等方法分析喀什地区浮尘日数的时空分布等气候特征,分析2019年3月19—25日喀什地区出现的强浮尘造成的重污染天气成因。结果表明:喀什地区年平均浮尘日数为71 d,浮尘日数总体呈减少趋势,并于1997年前后发生了显著减少性突变。2019年3月19—25日出现的强浮尘天气过程,持续时间长,影响范围广,乌拉尔山高压脊发展,脊前横槽转竖,在新疆东部回流东灌冷空气是造成此次沙尘过程的天气背景。浮尘天气造成21—24日喀什地区空气污染指数AQI指达500,属严重污染,首要污染物PM_(2.5)和PM_(10)在21日、22日达到峰值,分别为494、1 175μg/m~3。热力、动力条件以及近地面存在逆温层均不利于污染物的扩散。污染过程前后喀什市本站气压与PM_(10)、PM_(2.5)浓度均呈正相关,相关系数为0.762、0.507,均通过0.05显著性水平检验;气温与PM_(10)浓度呈负相关,与PM_(2.5)相关性不明显;相对湿度跟PM10和PM2.5呈正相关,表明气象因子在大气污染过程中对大气环境影响明显。     

关中区域主要大气污染物时空分布特征分析

利用关中区域西安、咸阳、渭南、铜川、宝鸡五个主要城市2014-2018年PM2.5、PM10、SO2和NO2四种主要大气污染物逐日平均质量浓度,统计分析了关中区域近5年环境空气质量时间变化特征和区域分布特征。结果表明:关中区域颗粒物PM2.5、PM10和SO2年平均质量浓度呈逐年下降趋势;西安、咸阳和渭南NO2年平均质量浓度呈逐年上升趋势,宝鸡和铜川相对较低且变化趋势不明显;区域大气环境质量总体在不断改善。关中区域4-10月尤其是夏季6-9月空气质量状况较好,7月最好;采暖期空气污染较为严重,其中1月环境空气质量最差,其次是2月。近5年以颗粒物PM2.5和PM10为主要污染物,年平均值均超标,而SO2质量浓度相对较低;从区域分布来看,中部环境空气质量最差,其中PM2.5、PM10和NO2质量浓度明显较高,东部次之,北部和西部相对较好。咸阳中度以上污染日数明显较多,其次为西安,渭南居第三,铜川最少;咸阳、西安和渭南中度以上污染日数呈逐年增加趋势,咸阳增加趋势最为显著,而宝鸡和铜川呈逐年减少趋势。     

1953—2008年厦门地区的灰霾天气特征

利用厦门气象局气象观测站1953—2008年地面气象观测资料和厦门市环保局2001—2005年PM10、SO2、NOX环境监测资料,分析了厦门地区霾天气的气候特征、气象要素特征,及其影响因素,探讨了大气污染物与霾天气的关系。结果表明,在过去的50多a中,年日照时数及能见度有明显下降的趋势;厦门市灰霾日数总体呈上升趋势,尤其近十年来更加明显;厦门夏秋季节霾日少于冬春季节;2000年以来,随着霾日的增加,霾的持续日数也迅速增加;风速增大不利于霾的形成,高相对湿度有利于霾的形成;近年来大气污染日益严重,污染物（SO2、NOX、PM10）浓度增大导致霾日数增加,能见度下降。     

聊城市空气质量现状及污染原因分析

利用2013年10月至2014年9月山东省聊城市大气主要污染物监测数据,分析了各种污染物的时空分布特征及其对空气污染的贡献,探讨了聊城市大气污染的成因。结果表明:2013年10月至2014年9月聊城市轻度污染以上的空气质量日数所占比例高达70.0%,大气中SO2、NO2、CO、PM2.5和PM10浓度季节变化规律明显,即冬季各种污染物浓度远高于夏季。日首要污染物以PM2.5和PM10出现日数最多,其次为SO2作为首要污染物在冬季出现偏多,臭氧8 h作为首要污染物在夏季出现相对较多。聊城市5种污染物对空气污染的影响程度从大到小依次为PM2.5PM10NO2COSO2,其中PM2.5与PM10分担率大幅高于其他3种污染物,说明聊城市大气污染属于可吸入颗粒物与细颗粒物主导的类型。相关分析发现,PM2.5和PM10具有来自相同或相似污染源的可能性,扬尘与化石燃料使用是PM2.5和PM10污染的主要成因。     

2014－2022年新疆库尔勒市空气质量特征及沙尘天气影响分析

基于2014－2022年库尔勒市空气质量监测数据,分析了库尔勒市空气质量水平和污染特征,并进一步探究了沙尘天气对空气质量的影响。结果表明：2014－2022年库尔勒市年均优良率为65.3%,春季空气污染最严重,夏季空气质量最好;大气污染主要是颗粒物超标,PM10年均浓度值超过二级标准限值127%,PM2.5超31%,SO2、NO2、CO、O3均达标;首要污染物为PM10,占总超标天数的92.2%,PM2.5为首要污染物占比8.0%;受沙尘影响天气年平均100.4d,污染日79.7%受到沙尘影响;按环境监测要求剔除沙尘天气,PM10和PM2.5平均浓度分别减少18.6%和13.0%;沙尘天气对AQI平均贡献率为31.8%,对PM10贡献率为41.9%,对PM2.5贡献率为23.3%。沙尘天气对库尔勒空气质量影响明显,大气污染防治根本是沙尘天气综合治理。沙尘天气对库尔勒市空气质量影响明显,大气污染防治根本是沙尘天气的综合治理。     

青岛市雾和城市空气质量的特征及其相关关系

基于2006—2012年青岛市区雾日数和同一时期市区8个环境监测站SO2、NO2及PM10 3种污染物浓度的监测资料,统计分析青岛市区雾日和空气质量特征,揭示青岛夏季海雾和冬季陆雾对城市空气质量的影响差异。分析结果表明,青岛市区年平均雾日55天,海雾日数占总雾日数的58%,6、7月是海雾高发期。青岛市年平均污染日数为30天,空气污染主要出现在冬、春两季,首要污染物为PM10。随着城市化进程,NO2质量浓度呈明显递增趋势,SO2年平均浓度是逐年下降的趋势。雾天气背景下常伴随着不同程度的空气污染,冬季大雾天气3种污染物浓度均显著高于夏季海雾天气污染物浓度。     

2013年河北中南部PM_(10)和PM_(2.5)浓度时间变化特征及其影响气象条件分析

对2013年河北省中南部的石家庄、保定、沧州、衡水、邢台和邯郸6个地市市区各站点逐小时PM10和PM2.5监测资料及相应气象资料分析结果表明:6个地市中邢台年污染日数最多,对应其年平均风速最小;沧州的最少,年平均风速最大。各地市各个级别污染日数不同,五、六级重污染天气均集中在10月—次年3月。首要污染物主要是PM10和PM2.5,但比例不尽相同。特殊的地理位置、污染源差异和气象条件的差异造成各地市污染日数、级别的差异。6个地市污染天气过程时段大都相同,区域性污染明显。各地市PM10和PM2.5浓度平均最大值均出现在冬季,PM10浓度平均最小值均出现在夏季,各市PM2.5浓度平均最小值出现的季节不同。6个地市PM10和PM2.5浓度值的月变化趋势相似。不同季节各地市PM10和PM2.5浓度日变化趋势不同,极值出现的时间也各不相同,极值出现的时间与气象条件和人类活动关系密切。秋、冬季各地市PM10和PM2.5浓度日较差多大于春、夏季的。各地市PM10和PM2.5浓度日均值与当地的日均气温、风速、能见度呈负相关关系,与相对湿度呈正相关关系且相关性比较显著。     

2019年冬季呼和浩特市大气污染频发的气象条件分析

利用2015—2019年呼和浩特市大气污染物质量浓度、气象要素观测及NCEP FNL 1°×1°再分析资料,分析近5 a冬季环境空气质量特征及与大气污染扩散紧密相关的气象要素和大气边界层特征,研究2019年冬季呼和浩特市大气污染频发的气象条件变化特征。结果表明:(1)呼和浩特市冬季较易出现污染天气,以PM 2.5污染为主,2019年冬季,大气污染呈现出污染物积聚难于扩散、污染长时间持续、污染天数和重污染占比均显著增高等特点。(2)2019年冬季呼和浩特市气象条件呈现出平均风速偏小、小风日数偏多、南风出现频率增多、相对湿度偏高、混合层高度偏低、通风系数较小、逆温日数较多等特征。     

2013-2016年惠州市大气颗粒物质量浓度变化特征和典型污染过程分析

利用2013-2016年惠州市5个环保国控站的PM质量浓度和国家基本气象观测站的气象要素观测数据及NCEP/NCAR日平均再分析资料,统计分析了惠州市大气颗粒物质量浓度变化特征及其与气象条件的关系。结果表明：2013-2016年惠州市大气颗粒物质量浓度、污染日数和超标日数均呈明显下降趋势,2016年PM10年平均质量浓度已接近年平均质量浓度限值一级标准,PM2.5年平均质量浓度达到年平均质量浓度限值二级标准。大气颗粒物质量浓度冬季的最高、秋季的次之,非汛期的（10月次年3月）显著高于汛期的（4-9月）。PM2.5污染日均出现在非汛期,尤其是冬季的1和12月,大多出现在晴朗干燥的东北风天气下。分析惠州市20132016年间两次长时间大气颗粒物污染过程发现,这两次大气颗粒物污染过程出现在冷空气减弱、冷高压东移出海后或下一波冷空气来临前,但随着南下冷空气的到来,北风加大或带来明显降水,空气质量明显好转。     

北京2005—2014年PM2.5质量浓度的演变特征

利用2005—2014年北京宝联（城区）和2006—2014年上甸子本底站（郊区）的PM2.5质量浓度监测结果揭示了其长时间的演变特征。结果表明,2005—2007年北京地区PM2.5污染最重,2008年以后PM2.5年平均浓度明显降低,中度以上污染日数减少,但是2013—2014年有加重趋势。城区秋、冬季平均浓度最高,春季和夏初次之。然而,近年来春、夏季污染有减轻的趋势,高浓度值出现的时间越来越向秋、冬季集中,从而导致季节性差异变大。春季沙尘天气是其影响因素之一。上甸子春、夏季的PM2.5平均浓度高于秋、冬季,与城区不同。但2011年以后城郊差异逐渐变小,表明污染事件的区域性特征增强。北京城区中度污染日数年平均为30 d,重度污染为26 d,严重污染为4.7 d。污染日数月际变化明显并且月分布具有年际差异。2013—2014年,中度污染日数减少,严重污染日数增加,PM2.5年平均浓度与秋、冬季重污染过程的相关性增大。上甸子中度以上污染日数是城区的1/3。持续性重污染过程多发生在秋、冬季。2008—2014年以后中度以上污染持续超过3 d的过程每年平均发生1.9次,重度以上污染0.6次。绝大多数严重污染只持续2~3 d。重度以上污染日多出现在污染过程的中后期,因此遇不利气象条件提前采取减排措施将有可能减少重污染发生的频次。     

基于空气质量模拟的江苏省大气污染物排放清单比较研究

大气污染物排放清单是空气质量模拟和空气污染治理的重要依据.本研究比较分析了两套覆盖江苏省的2017年大气污染物排放清单，即分别由上海市环境科学研究院、江苏省环境科学研究院编制的"长三角清单"和"江苏省清单"，并结合区域空气质量模型CMAQ评估不同清单对长三角地区2017年1、4、7、10月的空气质量模拟的影响.清单比较结果表明，除二氧化硫（SO₂）以外，江苏省清单估算的各污染物排放量较长三角清单低.通过与观测数据比较，发现两套清单对SO₂、氮氧化物（NO_x）、臭氧（O₃）和细颗粒物（PM_2.5）的模型模拟性能均较好.江苏省清单与长三角清单两者的模拟结果空间分布接近，其中江苏省清单模拟的PM_2.5和O₃在长三角多数地区略低于长三角清单的模拟结果（1月O₃除外）.江苏省清单与长三角清单均能够用于空气质量模式模拟，可为江苏地区的细颗粒物和光化学烟雾污染的控制策略制定提供参考.     

Effect of variation of the vertical air density profile on the relative optical air mass

Summary A simple method is developed which allows for estimating the deviations of the relative optical air mass for a given vertical air density profile from the relative optical air mass for the ARDC Model Atmosphere, 1959 which serves as standard. In case of the mean profiles given byQuiroz [3] for middle latitudes, summer; middle latitudes, winter; arctic summer; and arctic winter the air mass deviations turn out to be small.

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Zusammenfassung Es wird eine einfache Methode entwickelt, um aus den Abweichungen eines gegebenen vertikalen Luftdichteprofils von der als Standard dienenden ARDC-Modell-Atmosph?re 1959 die entsprechenden Abweichungen in der relativen optischen Luftmasse abzusch?tzen. Im Fall der vonQuiroz [3] angegebenen mittleren Luftdichteprofile für mittlere Breiten, Sommer; mittlere Breiten, Winter; arktischen Sommer und arktischen Winter erweisen sich die Luftmassen-Abweichungen als gering.

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Résumé On développe ici une méthode simple permettant d'estimer les déviations de la masse optique relative d'air pour un profil donné de la densité verticale de l'air en partant du modèle d'atmosphère ARDC 1959 pris pour référence. Dans le cas des profils moyens indiqués parQuiroz [3] pour les latitudes moyennes en été ou en hiver ainsi que pour l'arctique en été ou en hiver, les déviations dues aux différentes masses d'air sont faibles.

     

Chemistry of organic traces in air

The occurrence of CH₂Br₂, CH₂BrCl, CH₂I₂, CH₂ClI, CHBr₃, CHBr₂Cl, CHBrCl₂ and CH₂Br-CH₂Br in marine air and seawater from various sampling sites in the region of the Atlantic Ocean have been measured and evaluated. A correlation exists between high concentrations of these compounds in air and in water and the occurrence of algae at the coastlines of various islands (The Azores, Bermuda, Tenerife) and in a region of high bioactivity in the Atlantic Ocean near the West African coast.Real-world air-water concentration ratios derived from measurements in the open ocean identify the water mass near the African coast with its high primary production as a source for the above compounds. This region has to be discussed also as a possible secondary source in which CHBr₂Cl, CHBrCl₂ and CH₂ClI can be formed via halogen-exchange. Whether CHBrCl₂ and CH₂ClI under-go transformation to CHCl₃ and CH₂Cl₂, respectively, is open to further investigations.Direct photolysis and degradation by OH-radicals lead to a gradient in the marine troposphere with reduced concentrations for the organobromides above the tropospheric boundary layer.Partly presented at: 2nd International Symposium on Biosphere-Atmosphere Exchange, Mainz, F.R.Germany, 16–21 March, 1986. Part VII: Chemosphere 15 (1986) 429–436.     

Aerosols in Alaskan air masses

Results from measurements of the composition and size distribution of aerosol particles advected into central Alaska are reported. It is argued that the aerosol predominant in number, but not necessarily in mass, consists of submicron droplets of sulfuric acid. The major aerosol by mass in arctic air is a removal-resistant accumulation mode (radius 0.3 m) probably to large extent originating from pollution sources 10³ km upstream (mostly in central Eurasia) from the site in Alaska. The accumulation mode aerosol disappears when arctic air masses are replaced with relatively warmer air masses flowing in from the northern Pacific. The latter air mass systems have been strongly scavenged by clouds and precipitation associated with the Aleutian low pressure system and with forced orographic uplifting over the Alaska Mountain Range; nevertheless the Pacific air masses contain substantial (i.e., 500–1000 cm^-3) quantities of small (several hundredths of a micron in radius) particles. Arctic-derived air masses are enriched in large (i.e, 0.3 ) particles compared to Pacific Marine air masses, whereas the opposite trend is found for smaller, Aitken, particles. The smaller particles are found in greatest abundance in warmer air mass systems, presumably because of the relatively brief time since such air masses were last exposed to sunlight with attendant production of small particles from the gas phase.     

On the electrical conductivity of air inside buildings

Summary Simultaneous measurements of the electrical conductivity of air inside and outside of buildings have been performed with continuously recording electronic instruments of high sensitivity and short time constant. It appears that the electrical conductivity, a measure of the natural ionization of air, is one atmospheric-electric parameter that can manifest itself inside occupied buildings without appreciable difference in physical character from outside values.The probable importance of these experimental results for the field of bioclimatology is pointed out and the possibility is discussed that the electrical conductivity of air might be one of the searched—for parameters in associating physiological phenomena with weather changes.

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Zusammenfassung Gleichzeitige Messungen der luftelektrischen Leitfähigkeit im Freien und innerhalb von Gebäuden wurden mit kontinuierlich registrierenden Röhreninstrumenten von großer Empfindlichkeit und kurzer Zeitkonstante durchgeführt. Es wurde gefunden, daß die Leitfähigkeit als Maß der natürlichen Luftionisierung eine luftelektrische Größe darstellt, die ohne wesentliche physikalische Beeinflussung in bewohnte Gebäude einzudringen vermag.Die mögliche Bedeutung dieser experimentellen Ergebnisse für das Gebiet der Bioklimatologie wird angedeutet und die Wahrscheinlichkeit diskutiert, daß die luftelektrische Leitfähigkeit einen der noch unbestimmten Faktoren des Zusammenhanges physiologischer Erscheinungen mit Wetterveränderungen darstellen könnte.

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Résumé Des instruments électroniques à enregistrement continu de haute fidelité et ayant une constante de courte durée ont permis de prendre des mesures simultanées de la conductivité électrique de l'air à l'intérieur et à l'extérieur de bâtiments. Il semble que la conductivité électrique, mesure de l'ionisation naturelle de l'air, soit un paramètre de l'électricité atmosphérique qui peut se manifester à l'intérieur de bâtiments habités sans différence appréciable de caractéristiques physiques avec celles des valeurs extérieures.L'importance probable de ces résultats expérimentaux dans le champ de la bioclimatologie est indiquée, et la possibilité que la conductivité atmosphérique puisse être un des paramètres recherchés dans l'association des phénomènes physiologiques avec des changements du temps est étudiée.

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With 1 Figure.

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Publication No. 25 of the Institute of Geophysics, University of California at Los Angeles. The research reported in this paper has been sponsored in part by the Geophysics Research Directorate of the Air Force Cambridge Research Center, Air Research and Development Command, under Contract No. AF 19(122)-254.     

Catalysed self-cleaning of air on the earth's surface

Generally, it is assumed that UV-light, high temperature or reactive molecules like O₃ and OH are needed to activate gas reactions in air. In consequence, the catalytic activity on natural materials such as sand and soil on the earth's surface is assumed to be insignificant. We have measured O₂-dissociation rates on natural quartz sand at 40˚C and compared these with O₂-dissociation rates near 500˚C on materials with well-known catalytic activity. In terms of probabilities for dissociation of impinging O₂-molecules the measured rates are in the 10⁻¹²–10⁻⁴ range. We have also measured dissociation rates of H₂ and N₂, water-formation from H₂ and O₂ mixtures, exchange of N between N₂, NO _x and a breakdown of HNO₃, NO₂ and CH₄ on natural quartz sand at 40˚C. The measured rates together with an effective global land area have been used to estimate the impact of thermodynamically driven reactions on the earth's surface on the global atmospheric budgets of H₂, NO₂ and CH₄. The experimental data on natural quartz sand together with data from equilibrium calculations of air suggest that an expected increase in anthropogenic supply of air pollutants, such as NO _x or other “reactive” nitrogen compounds, hydrogen and methane, will be counter-acted by catalysis on the earth's surface. On the other hand, at Polar Regions and boreal forests where the “reactive” nitrogen concentration is below equilibrium, the same catalytic effect activates formation of bio-available nitrogen compounds from N₂, O₂ and H₂O.     

Long-term variations in surface air pressure and surface air temperature in the Northern Hemisphere mid-latitudes

The spatiotemporal variability of surface air pressure and surface air temperature in the Northern Hemisphere troposphere in 1990-2014 is described. In 2005 the low-frequency component (LFC) of average air temperature in January averaged over the latitude zone of 32.5°-67.5° N has stopped its increase that lasted for 35 years (from 1970). The LFC of air temperature in July has continued growing since 1975 (for 39 years). The anomalies of air pressure and air temperature for thirty-year periods and the dynamics of LFC of air temperature and air pressure in the atmospheric centers of action are analyzed.     

Local recent changes in extreme air temperature

Daily minimum and maximum air temperatures recorded in Naples (1872–1982) and in surrounding areas have been analysed in order to set up a statistical model for investigating climatic changes of extreme air temperature. We have analysed on various time-scales the mean values of minimum air temperature lower than the 10th percentile (Tmin₁₀) and the mean values of the maximum air temperature greater than the 90th percentile (Tmax₉₀). The results have shown for the city: (i) a significant secular trend both for yearly Tmin₁₀ and Tmax₉₀, mostly due to the process of urbanization, that is also responsible for (ii) the ascertained change in the character of the annual cycle, (iii) a reasonable ability to forecast winter Tmin₁₀ and summer Tmax₉₀ in statistical terms using a markovian model, and (iv) a significant 11-yr cycle with an amplitude of 0.5 °C directly related to solar activity which has never been succesfully determined before.     

A framework for evaluating air quality models

This paper describes a framework to evaluate air quality model predictions against observations. We propose the following relationship between observations and predictions from an adequate model% MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafeart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9% vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr-x% fr-xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGabm4qayaaja% WaaSbaaSqaaiaaicdaaeqaamXvP5wqonvsaeHbfv3ySLgzaGqbaOGa% e8hkaGIaamiEamaaBaaaleaacaaIXaaabeaakiaacYcacaWG4bWaaS% baaSqaaiaaikdaaeqaaOGae8xkaKIaeyypa0Jabm4qayaajaWaaSba% aSqaaiaadchaaeqaaOGae8hkaGIaamiEamaaBaaaleaacaaIXaaabe% aakiab-LcaPiab-TcaRiabew7aLjab-HcaOiaadIhadaWgaaWcbaGa% aGOmaaqabaGccqWFPaqkaaa!4F93!\[\hat C_0 (x_1 ,x_2 ) = \hat C_p (x_1 ) + \varepsilon (x_2 )\],where x ₁ refers to the inputs used in the model prediction C _p(x ₁), and x ₂denotes unknown variables which affect the observed concentration C ₀. The hats associated with C _pand C ₀denote transformations to convert the residual to a white noise sequence which is normally distributed. In this paper we assume % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafeart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9% vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr-x% fr-xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGabm4qayaaja% GaeyyyIORaciiBaiaac6gacaWGdbaaaa!3B39!\[\hat C \equiv \ln C\].The standard deviation of determines the expected deviation between model prediction and observation. The purpose of model improvement is to make this deviation as small as possible.The formalism we have proposed is applied to the evaluation of two models developed by this author. We show how careful analysis of residuals can lead to improvements in the model. We have also estimated for each of the models.In the last part of the part of the paper we show how the statistics of can be used to interpret model predictions.     

Numerical simulation of air flow over breaking waves

The air flow above breaking monochromatic Stokes waves is studied using a numerical nonlinear model of the turbulent air flow above waves of finite amplitude. The breaking event (spilling breaker) is parameterized by increasing the local roughness at the downwind slope of the wave, just beyond the crest. Both moderate slope waves and steep waves are considered. Above steep breaking waves, a large increase (typically 100%) in the total wind stress — averaged over the wave profile — is found compared to nonbreaking moderate slope waves. This is due to the drastic increase of the form drag, which arises from the asymmetrical surface pressure pattern above breaking waves. Both increase of wave slope (sharpening of the crest) and increase of local roughness in the spilling breaker area cause this asymmetrical surface pressure pattern. A comparison of the numerical results with the recent experimental measurements of Banner (1990) is carried out and a good agreement is found for the structure of the pressure pattern above breaking waves and for the magnitude of enhanced momentum transfer. Also: Dept. of Applied Physics, Techn. Univ. Delft, Netherlands.