Shallow lunar structure determined from the passive seismic experiment

Data relevant to the shallow structure of the Moon obtained at the Apollo seismic stations are compared with previously published results of the active seismic experiments. It is concluded that the lunar surface is covered by a layer of low seismic velocity (V _p ? 100 m s^?1), which appears to be equivalent to the lunar regolith defined previously by geological observations. This layer is underlain by a zone of distinctly higher seismic velocity at all of the Apollo landing sites. The regolith thicknesses at the Apollo 11, 12, and 15 sites are estimated from the shear-wave resonance to be 4.4, 3.7, and 4.4 m, respectively. These thicknesses and those determined at the other Apollo sites by the active seismic experiments appear to be correlated with the age determinations and the abundances of extralunar components at the sites.     

Lunar surface temperatures from apollo 12

The diurnal variation of temperatures in the lunar surface layer is calculated using the measured properties of the Apollo 12 samples. The results are compared with similar calculations made using data from the Apollo 11 samples and with previous infrared temperature measurements. Comparisons are also made with prior calculations which used assumed properties. These are based on an effective value of the thermal parameter [ = (kqc)^–1/2] of 1034 which is obtained from integrated average values of the specific heat and thermal conductivity of the Apollo 12 fines.     

Lunar conductivity models from the Apollo 12 magnetometer experiment

A number of conductivity models have been investigated for compatibility with the Apollo 12 magnetometer data. Except at the highest frequencies, a simple core-crust model is compatible with the observed dayside transfer function, which is expressed as the ratio of the lunar surface field spectrum to the interplanetary magnetic field spectrum. All conductivity profiles exhibit a peak near 1500 km, when the models are constrained to conform to the observed flat response at the higher frequencies. However, at frequencies above 0.01 Hz the long wavelength limitation of the theoretical model is no longer valid. A combination of dayside and nightside models and data indicate that a conductivity profile with a peak (0.003 mho/m) near 1500 km radius and a core conductivity of about 0.01 mho/m at 1000 km is compatible with the observations, as is a monotonic conductivity profile with 0.0005 mho/m at 1600 km and a core conductivity of 0.01 mho/m at 1000 km radius.A plausible explanation for the difference between the north-south and east-west transfer functions is that it is due to a time varying compression of the remanent (dc) field at the Apollo 12 site by fluctuations in the solar wind plasma. Providing that the spectrum of these compressive fluctuations is not strongly frequency dependent, the result of removing this effect will be to decrease slightly the estimated conductivity.Bellcomm, Inc., 955 L'Enfant Plaza North, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20024, U.S.A.     

Crater dimensions from apollo data and supplemental sources

A catalog of crater dimensions that were compiled mostly from the new Apollo-based Lunar Topographic Orthophotomaps is presented in its entirety. Values of crater diameter, depth, rim height, flank width, circularity, and floor diameter (where applicable) are tabulated for a sample of 484 craters on the Moon and 22 craters on Earth. Systematic techniques of mensuration are detailed. The lunar craters range in size from 400 m to 300 km across and include primary impact craters of the main sequence, secondary impact craters, craterlets atop domes and cones, and dark-halo craters. The terrestrial craters are between 10 m and 22.5 km in diameter and were formed by meteorite impact.     

Lunar occultation of Saturn: IV. Astrometric results from observations of the satellites

The method of determining local lunar limb slopes, and the consequent time scale needed for diameter studies, from accurate occultation timings at two nearby telescope is described. The results for the photoelectric observations made at Mauna Kea Observatory during the occultation of Saturn's satellites on March 30, 1974, are discussed. Analysis of all observations of occultations of Saturn's satellites during 1974 indicates possible errors in the ephemerides of Saturn and its satellites.     

Comments on the figure of the moon from apollo landmark tracking

Optical observations were made from the orbiting spacecraft to craters on the lunar surface during Apollo missions 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, and 15. Very accurate selenographic locations for 31 craters have been obtained from these data. The estimated radius values, with respect to the center of mass of the Moon, for the near side maria were smaller than the nominally accepted value of 1738 km. Gross figure of the Moon estimates were obtained for both a sphere and a constrained ellipsoid. These data appear to provide some proof that there is a displacement between the center of figure and the center of mass of the Moon.     

Recent results from the gamma-ray burst studies in the KONUS experiment

Observations of 85 gamma bursts by the KONUS instruments on the Venera 11 and Venera 12 spacecraft in the period September 1978 to May 1979 inclusive have provided proof of a galactic localization of the gamma-burst sources based on an analysis of the logN-logS plot and the revealed anisotropy in the angular distribution of sources over the celestial sphere. Evaluation of the energy released in the sources yields 10⁴⁰–10⁴¹ erg. There apparently exist several types of gamma bursts differing in time profile, duration and shape of their energy spectrum. In some cases, extensive evolution of the energy spectrum is observed during a burst. The discovery of a flaring X-ray pulsar in Dorado has provided the first observational evidence for a connection of gamma bursts with neutron stars. Repeated short bursts from this source have revealed for the first time the recurrent features of this phenomenon. Repeated bursts have been detected from one more source in the short burst class. The data obtained thus far impose a number of restrictions on the applicability of many theoretical suggestions concerning the nature of the gamma bursts. The most plausible model for the gamma-burst source appears to be a binary with a neutron star with strongly non-stationary accretion involving, possibly, non-stationary thermonuclear fusion of matter falling onto the surface of a degenerate star.Paper presented at the Symposium on Cosmic Gamma-Ray Bursts, held at Toulouse, France, 26–29 November, 1979.     

Lunar velocity structure and compositional and thermal inferences

Seismic data from the Apollo Passive Seismic Network stations are analyzed to determine the velocity structure and to infer the composition and physical properties of the lunar interior. Data from artificial impacts (S-IVB booster and LM ascent stage) cover a distance range of 70–1100 km. Travel times and amplitudes, as well as theoretical seismograms, are used to derive a velocity model for the outer 150 km of the Moon. TheP wave velocity model confirms our earlier report of a lunar crust in the eastern part of Oceanus Procellarum.The crust is about 60 km thick and may consist of two layers in the mare regions. Possible values for theP-wave velocity in the uppermost mantle are between 7.7 km s^–1 and 9.0 km s^–1. The 9 km s^–1 velocity cannot extend below a depth of about 100 km and must decrease below this depth. The elastic properties of the deep interior as inferred from the seismograms of natural events (meteoroid impacts and moonquakes) occurring at great distance indicate that there is an increase in attenuation and a possible decrease of velocity at depths below about 1000 km. This verifies the high temperatures calculated for the deep lunar interior by thermal history models.Paper presented at the Lunar Science Institute Conference on Geophysical and Geochemical Exploration of the Moon and Planets, January 10–12, 1973.     

Major and trace elements in igneous rocks from apollo 15

The concentrations of major and trace elements have been determined in igneous rocks from Apollo 15. All materials analyzed have typical depletions of Eu except for minerals separated from sample 15085. Four samples have concentrations of trace elements that are similar to those of KREEP. The samples of mare basalt from Apollo 15 have higher concentrations of FeO, MgO, Mn, and Cr and lower concentrations of CaO, Na₂O, K₂O, and rare-earth elements (REE) as compared to the samples of mare basalt from Apollos 11, 12, and 14. The samples can be divided into two groups on the basis of their normative compositions. One group is quartz normative and has low concentrations of FeO while the other is olivine normative and has high concentrations of FeO. The trace element data indicate that the samples of olivine normative basalt could be from different portions of a single lava flow. At least two and possible three parent magmas can be identified from the samples of the quartz normative group on the basis of their concentration ratios of Sm to Eu. Within each group, the compositions of the samples appear to be related by crystallization of olivine or pyroxene. Significant variations of the ratio of concentration of Sm to Eu cannot be produced without plagioclase-liquid equilibrium. The source material of mare basalt may be depleted in Eu. Alternatively, the magmas may have assimilated a small volume of material similar to KREEP.Paper dedicated to Prof. Harold C. Urey on the occasion of his 80th birthday on 29 April 1973.     

On the scientific aims of the MISS seismic experiment

The paper deals with how the data on structure of the Martian near-surface layers and deep interiors can be obtained using the only broadband seismometer in the framework of the planned MISS (Mars Interior Structure by Seismology) experiment. For this purpose, both traditional and nontraditional seismic methods of interior sounding are used. These methods process meteorite impact data, seismic noise from meteorological effects, and the data from strong Martian lithoshere quakes.     

Note on the number and origin of apollo asteroids

Fifteen Apollo, or Earth-crossing, asteroids are now recognized, and their orbital elements tabulated here. None has been accidentally rediscovered, a circumstance that leads to the 50% probability that the total number equals or does not exceed 100 to absolute magnitude 18, or above a diameter of roughly 1 km. Physical observations, orbital characteristics, and associated meteor streams provide clues as to whether the Apollo asteroids are truly minor planets or moribund cometary nuclei. A definitive answer as to the origin of the Apollo asteroids is yet to be found, but a short discussion of the status of the problem is presented.Paper dedicated to Prof. Harold C. Urey on the occasion of his 80th birthday on 29 April, 1973.     

Summary results of the shanghai-effelsberg VLBI experiment

The first VLBI experiment between Shanghai and Effelsberg, West Germany, was carried out at 1430 MHz in November 1981. The observations lasted 54 hours and the Mark II recording system and hydrogen masers were used at both stations. Fourteen extragalactic sources covering a wide range of declination were duly observed. The Shanghai-Effelsberg baseline vector was determined to an estimated formal precision of 2–3 metres and the positions of the sources 1739 + 52 and 1928 + 73, to $\text{0}\text{″}\text{.}\text{05 ? 0}\text{″}\text{.}\text{08}$ in each coordinate, with the effects of the ionosphere not removed. The source of 1928 + 73 was found to be double with a component separation of $\text{0}\text{″}\text{.}\text{0089}$.     

Low velocity impacts into dust: results from the COLLIDE-2 microgravity experiment

We present the results of the second flight of the Collisions Into Dust Experiment (COLLIDE-2), a space shuttle payload that performs six impact experiments into simulated planetary regolith at speeds between 1 and 100 cm/s. COLLIDE-2 flew on the STS-108 mission in December 2001 following an initial flight in April 1998. The experiment was modified since the first flight to provide higher quality data, and the impact parameters were varied. Spherical quartz projectiles of 1-cm radius were launched into quartz sand and JSC-1 lunar regolith simulant targets 2-cm deep. At impact speeds below ∼20 cm/s the projectile embedded itself in the target material and did not rebound. Some ejecta were produced at ∼10 cm/s. At speeds >25 cm/s the projectile rebounded and significant ejecta was produced. We present coefficients of restitution, ejecta velocities, and limits on ejecta masses. Ejecta velocities are typically less than 10% of the impact velocity, and the fraction of impact kinetic energy partitioned into ejecta kinetic energy is also less than 10%. Taken together with a proposed aerodynamic planetesimal growth mechanism, these results support planetesimal growth at impact speeds above the nominal observed threshold of about 20 cm/s.     

Lunar viscosity as obtained from the selenotherms

Based on the selenothermsT(z) (= temperature-depth functions) and melting point-depth functionsT _m(z) viscosity valuesη(z) are calculated. According to two different creep laws used, two sets of viscosity values are obtained. Viscosities in the outer part of the Moon are found to be larger than those anywhere on Earth. These high values ofη explain the large elasticityQ found in lunar seismograms. Viscosities below about 500 km in depth are so small that, at present, some kind of convection or a flow of matter is possible. Tidegenerated moonquakes at depths of around 1000 km seem to be connected with some viscous process. From considerations of viscosities at the time period of mare filling, some selection of ancient selenotherms may be performed.     

Bow shock structure from laboratory and satellite experimental results

In this paper, by analyzing satellite observations and comparing them with generalized results of laboratory experiments a study is made of the structure of the bow shock wave and of the nature of the mechanisms that shape it up. It is shown that the structure of bow shock fronts of a laminar type is similar to that of a transverse and oblique shock observed in a laboratory plasma. The quasilaminar and turbulent (for not very large 0 < β₁ ? 3) structures of the bow shock with “subshock” are similar to the shock with an isomagnetic jump in the laboratory plasma.     

Lunar heat flow and regolith structure inferred from interferometric observations at a wavelength of 49.3 cm

We discuss observations of the Moon at a wavelength of 49.3 cm made with the Owens Valley Radio Observatory Interferometer. These observations have been fit to models in order to estimate the lunar dielectric constant, the equatorial subsurface temperature, the latitude dependence of the subsurface temperature, and the subsurface temperature gradient. The models are most consistent with a dielectric constant of 2.52 ± 0.01 (formal errors), an equatorial subsurface temperature of 249_?5⁺⁸K, and a change in the subsurface temperature with latitude (ψ), which is proportional to cos^0.38ψ. Since the temperature of the Moon has been measured by the Apollo Lunar Heat Flow Experiment, we have been able to use our determination of the equatorial temperature to estimate the error in the flux density calibration scale at 49.3cm (608 MHz). This results in a correction factor of 1.03 ± 0.04, which must be applied to the flux density scale. This factor is much different from 1.21 ± 0.09 estimated by Muhleman et al. (1973) from the brightness temperature of Venus and apparently indicates that the observed decrease in the brightness temperature of Venus at long wavelengths is a real effect.The estimates of the temperature gradient, which are based on the measurement of limb darkening, are small and negative (temperature decreases with depth) and may be insignificantly different from zero since they are only as large as their formal errors. We estimate that a temperature gradient in excess of 0.6K/m at 10m depth would have been observed. Thus, a temperature gradient like that measured in situ at the Apollo 15 and 17 landing sites in the upper 2m of the regolith is not typical of the entire lunar frontside at the 10m depths where the 49.3 cm wavelength emission originates. This result may indicate that the mean lunar heat flow is lower than that measured at the Apollo landing sites, that the thermal conductivity is greater at 10m depth than it is at 2m depth, or that the radio opacity is greater at 10m depth than at 2m depth. The negative estimates of the temperature gradient indicate that the Moon appeared limb bright and might be explained by scattering of the emission from boulders or an interface with solid rock. The presence of solid rock at 10m depths will probably cause heat flows like those measured by Apollo to be unobservable by our interferometric method at long wavelengths, since it will cause both the thermal conductivity and radio opacity of the regolith to increase. Thus, our data may be most consistent with a change in the physical properties of the regolith to those of solid rock or a mixture of rock and soil at depths of 7 to 16m. Our results show that future radio measurements for heat flow determinations must utilize wavelengths considerably shorter than 50 cm (25 cm or less) to avoid the rock regions below the regolith.     

Light and dark soils at the apollo 16 landing site

On the basis of inert gas systematics alone, the soilsnow near the surface at the Apollo 16 landing site can be divided into three major groups: Group I (North Ray Crater Soils), Group II (Light Soils), and Group III (Dark Soils). Only five soils do not fit this scheme. The inert gas-based classification is correlated with the chemistry of the soils. Group I soils are relatively poor in K, Fe, Ti and Zn, compared to Group II and III soils. The classification is also correlated with reflectivity. Group I and II soils are generally the light soils in the landing area, while the Group III soils are the dark soils. The groups are not randomly distributed in the landing area. Group I soils occur only at stations 11 and 13 on the ejecta blanket of North Ray Crater. Group II soils occur abundantly at stations 1 and 2, and in spots on Stone Mountain. Group III soils are abundant on Stone Mountain and at station 10. We suggest here that Group I soils are principally derived from the light friable unit, one of the three units inside North Ray Crater, as described by Ulrich. We suggest that Group II soils are mainly derived from the light matrix breccia unit. Group III soils are mixtures of materials from all three units. We conclude that soils with the properties of Group III soils have been at the surface continuously for long times. However, going backwards in time, these soils probably had increasingly larger (Ar⁴⁰/Ar³⁶)t ratios. The ejecta blanket of North Ray Crater is a temporary ‘anomaly’ in the landing site. However, soils with the properties of Group I soils, but with larger (Ar⁴⁰/Ar³⁶)t ratios may turn up in Apollo 16 core tubes. The Group II soils show a record of solar wind exposure in the distant past (i.e., they have relatively large Art ⁴⁰/ARt ³⁶ ratios). From this we conclude that the regolith at Apollo 16 contains sizeable ‘pockets’ or horizons at depth which are the sources of the Group II soils. The materials in these pockets may be akin to soil 61 220.