Correlation of mineralogical and textural characteristics with engineering properties of selected granitic rocks from Turkey

Granitic rocks show a variety of engineering properties that may affect quarrying operations, tunneling, mining, slope stability and the use of rock as a construction material. The physical and mechanical properties are a function of the mineralogical and textural characteristics of the rock. The purpose of this study is to apply correlation analysis to investigate the relationships between petrographical and engineering properties of granitic rocks. A variety of granitic rock samples from different parts of Turkey were subjected to petrographic studies. The same samples were then tested to determine specific gravity, dry and saturated unit weight, water absorption, effective and total porosity, sonic velocity, Schmidt hardness, point load strength index, uniaxial compressive strength, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity. The relationships between these properties and the petrographical characteristics are described by simple regression analyses. The study revealed that the influence of the textural characteristics on the engineering properties appears to be more important than the mineralogy. It also determined that the types of contacts, grain (mineral) shape and size significantly influence the engineering properties of the granitic rocks.     

浙江花岗岩的工程岩石学研究

对浙江省花岗岩的岩相学特征及力学性质进行了研究以确定它们之间的关系.矿物学研究显示出花岗岩的交代蚀变特征,这可以反映在岩石的力学性质上.岩石材料的物理性质决定其工程学性质,在相关定量参数确定的情况下,可以预测岩石材料的工程学性质.镜下观察、硬度、密度、孔隙度及点负荷强度均可作为所研究花岗岩的定量参数.上述每个因素都可提供岩石工程学的可靠预测.岩石的物理性质受岩石成分及蚀变状态控制,而岩石的工程学性质和力学特征是其物理性质的函数.     

测井资料在岩石硬度预测中的应用

探讨了岩石硬度与测井参数间的关系,利用测井资料结合数学处理方法进行了岩石硬度预测方法研究。结果表明,岩石硬度与声波测井有很好的相关性,而与自然伽马测井无必然联系。在此基础上,利用声波测井资料建立了岩石硬度预测模型,并对预测模型进行了检验和修正,使预测精度达到90%以上。同时,该方法可以克服室内微钻头实验法中,由于岩心数量有限且实验用岩心为完整岩块,不能代表整个岩体性质的缺陷,实现了地层岩石硬度的快速实时预测,为钻头设计、选型、钻井工程设计提供了基础参数。      

Investigation into Relationships Between Cerchar Hardness Index and Some Mechanical Properties of Coal Measure Rocks

This paper examines the relationships between Cerchar hardness index (CHI) and some mechanical properties of coal measure rocks in Zonguldak Hard Coal Basin. Some index properties (Cerchar hardness index, Shore scleroscope hardness, in situ Schmidt rebound hardness and point load strength) and strength (uniaxial compressive strength and Brazilian tensile strength) properties of 29 sedimentary rock samples are determined. Then, relationships between (CHI) and strength as well as and some other index values are evaluated using statistical methods. Linear relationships are found between CHI and uniaxial compressive strength, Schmidt rebound hardness. Power relationships are determined between CHI and Shore scleroscope hardness, diametral point load strength, point load strength anisotropy index. Besides, CHI tests are performed by means of bits having tip angles of 99° and 125° and excellent linear relationships are identified between them.     

A Simplified Failure Criterion for Intact Rocks Based on Rock Type and Uniaxial Compressive Strength

The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of intact rock, which can be estimated using relatively straightforward and cost-effective techniques, is one of the most practical rock properties used in rock engineering. Thus, constitutive laws to represent the strength and behavior of (intact) rock frequently use it, along with additional intrinsic rock properties. Although triaxial tests can be employed to obtain best-fit failure criterion parameters that provide best strength predictions, they are more expensive and require time-consuming procedures; as a consequence, they are often not readily available at early stages of a project. Based on the analysis of an extensive triaxial test database for intact rocks, we propose a simplified empirical failure criterion in which rock strength at failure is expressed in terms of confining stress and UCS, with a new parameter which can be directly estimated from the UCS for a specified rock type in the absence of triaxial test data. Performance of the proposed failure criterion is then tested for validation against experimental data for eight rock types. The results show that strengths of intact rock estimated by the proposed failure criterion are in good agreement with experimental test data, with small discrepancies between estimated and measurements strengths. Therefore, the proposed criterion can be useful for preliminary (triaxial) strength estimation of intact rocks when triaxial tests data are not available.     

香港岩石的硬度与点荷载指标和强度的关系

无损硬度测试——施密特锤及肖氏硬度实验和点荷载试验是三种经常用来间接测定岩石强度指标的方法。目前很多学者已提出了不同的经验关系,这些关系主要是把硬度指标、点荷载指标和单轴抗压强度、单轴抗拉强度与间接拉伸强度联系起来。但是在应用这些关系时,必须首先用当地的岩石特性数据加以验证,查看地质变化的影响,才可确保使用无误。本文的主要目的是根据大量香港岩石（包括花岗岩、石灰岩、大理岩和凝灰岩）的实验数据,提出一套适用于香港地区岩石的经验关系,另外也对其他经验关系作了考证。     

Application of statistical methods for predicting uniaxial compressive strength of limestone rocks using nondestructive tests

Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of an intact rock is an important geotechnical parameter for engineering applications. Using standard laboratory tests to determine UCS is a difficult, expensive and time-consuming task. The main purpose of this study is to develop a general model for predicting UCS of limestone samples and to investigate the relationships among UCS, Schmidt hammer rebound and P-wave velocity (V _P). For this reason, some samples of limestone rocks were collected from the southwestern Iran. In order to evaluate a correlation, the measured and predicted values were examined utilizing simple and multivariate regression techniques. In order to check the performance of the proposed equation, coefficient of determination (R ²), root-mean-square error, mean absolute percentage error, variance accounts for (VAF %), Akaike Information Criterion and performance index were determined. The results showed that the proposed equation by multivariate regression could be applied effectively to predict UCS from its combinations, i.e., ultrasonic pulse velocity and Schmidt hammer hardness. The results also showed that considering high prediction performance of the models developed, they can be used to perform preliminary stages of rock engineering assessments. It was evident that such prediction studies not only provide some practical tools but also contribute to better understanding of the main controlling index parameters of UCS of rocks.     

Empirical Correlations for Predicting Strength Properties of Rocks from P-Wave Velocity Under Different Degrees of Saturation

Determination of P-wave velocity (V _p), which is closely related to intact rock properties both in laboratory and in situ conditions, is a non-destructive, easy and less complicated procedure. Due to these advantages, there is an increasing trend to predict the physico-mechanical properties of rocks from V _p. By considering that no attempt on the estimation of mechanical properties of rocks from V _p under different degrees of saturation has been made, in this study, it was aimed to correlate strength properties (uniaxial compressive and tensile strengths) with V _p of various rock types under different degrees of saturation. For this purpose, fourteen different rock types were collected from several parts of Turkey and a comprehensive laboratory testing program was conducted. Experimental results indicated that strength and deformability properties of the rocks decreased with increasing degree of saturation, while V _p showed increasing and decreasing trends depending on degree of saturation. Simple regression analysis results indicated that although prediction of the strength properties of rocks directly from V _p at different degrees of saturation was possible, the equations developed would yield some under- or over-predictions. In the second stage of statistical analyses, a series of different prediction relationships were developed by using independent variables such as V _p, degree of saturation and effective clay content (ECC). The statistical tests suggested that the resultant multivariate equations had very high prediction performances and were very useful tools to estimate the strength properties from V _p determined at any degree of saturation. In addition, the comparisons between the theoretical Gassmann–Biot velocities, which were calculated at different degrees of saturation, and the experimental results suggest that the theoretical Gassmann–Biot velocities show inconsistencies with the experimental results obtained from the investigated rock types with high ECC. Therefore, it was concluded that the use of theoretical velocities is not suitable for rock types with high ECC.     

Estimation of Durability Aspects of Al Masjid Al-Haram Marble,Makkah City,Saudi Arabia

The durability is a measure of the rock’s ability to resist degradation during its working life. Rock durability is greatly related to the mineralogical composition of rocks, rock texture (crystal interlocking, crystal shape and size), and the nature of fluids that are in contact with rock. Marbles have been among the most important building materials since ancient times. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the durability of Al Masjid Al-Haram marble and Ordinary white marble “Carrara” (M₁ and M₂) and develop some correlations among the physical and mechanical properties such as P-wave velocity, slake durability index, dry uniaxial compressive strength (UCS_Dry), abrasion resistance, point load index, impact strength index, Brazilian tensile strength, and Shore hardness. After testing and the evaluation of the test results, strong statistical correlations were found between P-wave velocity and other rock properties. Statistical correlations between the UCS_Dry other tests were also carried out. The coefficients of regressions (R²) range from 0.6177 to 0.997. The study shows that the UCS_Dry values of M1 and M2 have positive relationship with P wave velocities. Concluding remark is that the rocks tested in the study have good durability characteristics and can be reliably used for construction projects. On the other hand, the derived empirical equations can be used for the estimation purposes for similar rock types.     

Prediction of uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones using petrography-based models

The uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock is the main parameter used in almost all engineering projects. The uniaxial compressive strength test requires high quality core samples of regular geometry. The standard cores cannot always be extracted from weak, highly fractured, thinly bedded, foliated and/or block-in-matrix rocks. For this reason, the simple prediction models become attractive for engineering geologists. Although, the sandstone is one of the most abundant rock type, a general prediction model for the uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones does not exist in the literature. The main purposes of the study are to investigate the relationships between strength and petrographical properties of sandstones, to construct a database as large as possible, to perform a logical parameter selection routine, to discuss the key petrographical parameters governing the uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones and to develop a general prediction model for the uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones. During the analyses, a total of 138 cases including uniaxial compressive strength and petrographic properties were employed. Independent variables for the multiple prediction model were selected as quartz content, packing density and concavo–convex type grain contact. Using these independent variables, two different prediction models such as multiple regression and ANN were developed. Also, a routine for the selection of the best prediction model was proposed in the study. The constructed models were checked by using various prediction performance indices. Consequently, it is possible to say that the constructed models can be used for practical purposes.     

Factors affecting the durability of selected weak and clay-bearing rocks from Turkey, with particular emphasis on the influence of the number of drying and wetting cycles

Weathering can induce a rapid change of rock material from initial rock-like properties to soil-like properties. The resistance of a rock to short-term weathering is described through a durability parameter called the slake durability index. As durability is an important engineering parameter, particularly for weak and clay-bearing rocks, it was assessed by a number of tests. The main purpose of this study is to assess the influence of the number of drying and wetting cycles and controls of mineralogical composition and strength on durability. For this purpose, 141 samples of different types of weak and clay-bearing rocks were selected from different parts of Turkey, and relationships between the above-mentioned rock characteristics were statistically investigated. The samples were subjected to multiple-cycle slake durability testing, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and uniaxial compression testing. In addition, to assess the influence of mineralogical composition on durability, the mineral contents of the original material and the material passing from the drum of the slake durability apparatus after each cycle were also determined by XRD. The results indicate that the type and amount of clay minerals are the main factors influencing the variations of the slake durability index in all samples. The durability of the clay-bearing rocks studied correlates best with the amount of expandable clay minerals. A strong relationship between the uniaxial compressive strength and the fourth-cycle slake durability index is found only for the marls among the rock types studied. Assessment of gradation results of the spoil pile materials consisting of clay-bearing rocks also reveals that the increase in percentage of fines in old piles is indicative of material degradation, as is evident by multiple-cycle slaking. It is emphasized that two-cycle conventional slake durability testing did not appear to offer an acceptable indication of the durability of weak and clay-bearing rocks when compared with multiple-cyclic wetting and drying. Comments on the performance of the test are made that aim to make the testing process and interpretation of the results more reliable.     

Correlation of Schmidt hardness with unconfined compressive strength and Young''s modulus in gypsum from Sivas (Turkey)

This study aims to express the relationships between Schmidt rebound number (N) with unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and Young's modulus (E_t) of the gypsum by empirical equations. As known, the Schmidt hammer has been used worldwide as an index test for a quick rock strength and deformability characterisation due to its rapidity and easiness in execution, simplicity, portability, low cost and nondestructiveness. In this study, gypsum samples have been collected from various locations in the Miocene-aged gypsum of Sivas Basin and tested. The tests include the determination of Schmidt hammer rebound number (N), tangent Young's modulus (E_t) and unconfined compressive strength. Finally, obtained parameters were correlated and regression equations were established among Schmidt hammer rebound hardness, tangent Young's modulus and unconfined compressive strength, presenting high coefficients of correlation. It appears that there is a possibility of estimating unconfined compressive strength and Young's modulus of gypsum, from their Schmidt hammer rebound number by using the proposed empirical relationships of UCS=exp(0.818+0.059N) and E_t=exp(1.146+0.054N). However, the equations must be used only for the gypsum with an acceptable accuracy, especially at the preliminary stage of designing a structure. Finally, by using the obtained Schmidt hammer rebound number from this study, unconfined compressive strength was calculated and compared with the calculated value from different empirical equations proposed by different authors. It can be said that it is impossible to obtain only one relation for all types of the rocks.     

红层软岩结构特征与工程评价初探

通过研究红层软岩风化程度、完整性、饱和单轴抗压强度、结构灵敏性、分散性、胶结系数、崩解性、不同尺度结构类型等工程参数与岩土体结构的关系,提出了岩土"结构稳定性"的工程概念与分析思路,初步建立了由结构类型、风化系数、完整性系数、坚硬程度、崩解模式、结构灵敏度、分散度、胶结系数等工程参数组成的红层岩土结构稳定性综合判别标准,将红层岩土分为结构稳定性强、结构稳定性中等、结构稳定性差三类,为理解红层岩土工程性能、工程安全设计等提供了参考。     

Estimation of rock physicomechanical properties using hardness methods

The purpose of this study is to investigate the statistical relationship between hardness value and physicomechanical properties of constructional and cover rocks. The definition, measurement of hardness and classification of the rocks used are very important in construction sector. From this point of view, rock hardness is one of the most important parameters for the determination of rock properties. In this study, the determination of hardness and the physicomechanical properties of constructional and cover rocks in Çukurova region was accomplished using various methods in the laboratory. Statistical relations between physicomechanical properties and hardness of rocks were also determined. High correlations were found between the hardness methods (Shore Scleroscope, Schmidt hammer hardness), which are cheap and easy to use, and other physical and mechanical properties. It was found that physicomechanical properties can be estimated using hardness methods and compared with the calculated value from different empirical equations.     

四川泸定地区岩土体类型与地质灾害

岩土体为地质灾害的活动主体。地质灾害的孕育、发生和成灾等,都是岩土体的不同活动形式的反映。不同岩土体具有不同的物理、力学及水理性质,其可能产生的地质环境问题也不同。在进行灾害预测评价时,必须充分考虑不同岩土体与地质灾害的关系。     

An investigation of the relationship between uniaxial compressive strength and degradation for selected rock types

The relationship between uniaxial compressive strength and degradation was investigated for selected rock types, by using regression analyses to determine whether degradation was a useful predictor of compressive strength. In addition, the effects of aggregate particle size, number of hammer blows during the degradation test, engineering index properties, petrographic characteristics, and water saturation on the compressive strength-degradation relationship were evaluated. The results show that strong inverse relationships exist between compressive strength and degradation (measured on a 9.5-4.75-mm size aggregate) for sandstones and igneous/metamorphic rocks, but that no significant relationship exists for limestones/dolomites. The results also indicate a strong positive correlation between degradation and L.A. abrasion loss and can be used to establish a limit of allowable degradation for practical applications. Engineering index properties do not significantly affect the relationship between compressive strength and degradation but petrographic characteristics are important in explaining the strength and degradation behavior of the rocks studied. Water saturation decreases compressive strength and increases degradation to varying degrees.     

Correlation between Cerchar abrasivity index,rock properties,and drill bit lifetime

The Cerchar abrasivity index (CAI) is one of the most widely known index method for identification of rock abrasivity. It is a simple and fast testing method providing reliable information on rock abrasiveness. In this study, the relationships between the CAI and some rock properties such as uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), point load strength, Brazilian tensile strength and Schmidt rebound hardness, and equivalent quartz content (EQC) are examined. The relationships between the CAI and drill bit lifetime is also investigated and the type of drill bit wear observed is mentioned. Additionally, the CAI is modeled using simple and multiple linear regression analysis based on the rock properties. Drill bit lifetime is also modeled based on the CAI. The results show that the CAI increases with the increase of the UCS, point load strength, Brazilian tensile strength, L-type and N-type Schmidt rebound hardness, and the EQC. It is concluded that the higher and the lower bit lifetime are obtained for marl and andesitic-basaltic formation, respectively. Moreover, flushing holes, inserted button, button removal, and failures of button on the bits are determined as the type of drill bit wear. The modeling results show that the models based on the UCS and the EQC give the better forecasting performances for the CAI.     

Random field characterization of uniaxial compressive strength and elastic modulus for intact rocks

Rock properties exhibit spatial variabilities due to complex geological processes such as sedimentation,metamorphism, weathering, and tectogenesis. Although recognized as an important factor controlling the safety of geotechnical structures in rock engineering, the spatial variability of rock properties is rarely quantified. Hence, this study characterizes the autocorrelation structures and scales of fluctuation of two important parameters of intact rocks, i.e. uniaxial compressive strength(UCS) and elastic modulus(EM).UCS and EM data for sedimentary and igneous rocks are collected. The autocorrelation structures are selected using a Bayesian model class selection approach and the scales of fluctuation for these two parameters are estimated using a Bayesian updating method. The results show that the autocorrelation structures for UCS and EM could be best described by a single exponential autocorrelation function. The scales of fluctuation for UCS and EM respectively range from 0.3 m to 8.0 m and from 0.3 m to 8.4 m.These results serve as guidelines for selecting proper autocorrelation functions and autocorrelation distances for rock properties in reliability analyses and could also be used as prior information for quantifying the spatial variability of rock properties in a Bayesian framework.     

Artificial neural network model for prediction of rock properties from sound level produced during drilling

In many rock engineering applications such as foundations, slopes and tunnels, the intact rock properties are not actually determined by laboratory tests, due to the requirements of high quality core samples and sophisticated test equipments. Thus, predicting the rock properties by using empirical equations has been an attractive research topic relating to rock engineering practice for many years. Soft computing techniques are now being used as alternative statistical tools. In this study, artificial neural network models were developed to predict the rock properties of the intact rock, by using sound level produced during rock drilling. A database of 832 datasets, including drill bit diameter, drill bit speed, penetration rate of the drill bit and equivalent sound level (L_eq) produced during drilling for input parameters, and uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), Schmidt rebound number (SRN), dry density (ρ), P-wave velocity (V_p), tensile strength (TS), modulus of elasticity (E) and percentage porosity (n) of intact rock for output, was established. The constructed models were checked using various prediction performance indices. Goodness of the fit measures revealed that recommended ANN model fitted the data as accurately as experimental results, indicating the usefulness of artificial neural networks in predicting rock properties.     

A correlation between P-wave velocity and Schmidt hardness with mechanical properties of travertine building stones

As known, P-wave velocity and Schmidt hardness are non-destructive tests, which have been used for many years in geological, geotechnical, and civil engineering as an index tests for a quick assessment of rocks mechanical properties due to its rapidity and easiness, and non-destructiveness. The purpose of this study is to investigate the correlation between P-wave velocity and Schmidt hardness with some of mechanical properties of travertine building stones by empirical equations. Moreover, we have compared the accuracy of P-wave velocity and Schmidt hardness to estimate the mechanical properties of rocks. For this purpose, 15 types of travertine have been collected from various quarries of Iran and tested. The tests include the determination of P-wave velocity and Schmidt hardness, and mechanical properties include the unconfined compressive strength, Brazilian tensile strength, and point load strength. Using data analysis, empirical equations have been developed for estimating the mechanical properties from P-wave velocity and Schmidt hardness. To check the validity of the empirical equations, a t test was performed, which confirmed the validity of the proposed empirical equations. Moreover, the results show that P-wave velocity appears to be more reliable than the Schmidt hardness for estimating the mechanical properties. Consequently, we propose empirical equations avoiding from cumbersome and time consuming tests for determining the mechanical properties of rocks.