干湿循环对非饱和膨胀土抗剪强度影响的试验研究

膨胀土是一种气候敏感性土体,研究在干湿循环过程中膨胀土剪切强度的变化,对了解在自然界周期性蒸发和降雨作用下原位膨胀土体工程性质的变化以及由此导致的地质灾害发生过程具有重要意义。文中以重塑非饱和膨胀土为研究对象,模拟了3次干湿循环过程,对每次干燥路径中的试样进行了直剪试验,重点分析含水率、正压力及干湿循环次数对膨胀土剪切强度的影响,得到如下主要结果：（1）在干燥过程中,随着含水率的减小,试样的刚度、脆性、抗剪强度值（峰值剪切应力）、抗剪强度指标（黏聚力、内摩擦角）及抗剪强度损失（峰值强度与残余强度之差）均呈增加趋势;（2）正压力越高,试样的剪切强度和残余强度越大,而破坏后的峰值强度损失越小,破坏韧性增加;（3）在3次干燥过程中,试样的剪切强度及黏聚力呈先增加后减小的趋势,在第二次干燥过程中达到峰值,但内摩擦角受干湿循环的影响无明显规律;（4）试样经历多次干湿循环后,其剪切特性越来越类似于超固结土,脆性显著增加;（5）干燥过程和干湿循环对试样残余剪切强度的影响都不明显,残余剪切强度基本都在100 kPa附近变化;（6）非饱和膨胀土在干湿循环及干燥过程中剪切强度的变化除了与吸力有关外,还与其微观结构调整和裂隙发育状态密切相关,需要综合非饱和土力学和土质学理论对试验现象进行分析。     

Expansive bentonite-sand mixtures in cyclic controlled-suction drying and wetting

Expansive clay buffers in radioactive waste disposal designs experience cyclic drying and wetting paths during different stages of their design life. Clayey soils subjected to these processes develop swelling and shrinkage deformations, which give rise to the accumulation of compression or expansion strains during suction cycles. Experimental studies were undertaken using oedometer tests on an artificially prepared bentonite-sand mixture (80% bentonite by dry mass). In order to study these processes and to identify the most important features controlling soil behaviour, several wetting-drying cycles with suctions ranging between 130 and 4 MPa were applied using vapour equilibrium technique and covering a wide range of overconsolidation ratios (OCR). The tested samples showed cumulative shrinkage strains along the successive cycles, which became more significant at increasing vertical net stresses (low OCR values). However, no accumulation of expansion strains was detected at elevated OCR values. Test results were interpreted and predicted within the context of an elastoplastic model proposed by Alonso et al., 1999, [Alonso, E.E., Vaunat, J., Gens, A., (1999). Modelling the mechanical behaviour of expansive clays. Engineering Geology, 54, 173-183.] which takes into account the accumulation of strains. A good correspondence between measured soil response and model predictions was observed. The paper also presents the methodology to derive the constitutive parameters.     

Influence of Cyclic Wetting Drying on Collapse Behaviour of Compacted Residual Soil

The climatic zones where residual soils occur are often characterized by alternate wet and dry seasons. Laboratory studies of earlier workers have established that the alternate wetting and drying process affects the swell-shrink potentials, water content, void ratio and particle cementation of expansive soils. The influence of cyclic wetting and drying on the collapse behaviour of residual soils has not been examined. This paper examines the influence of alternate wetting and drying on the collapse behaviour of compacted residual soil specimens from Bangalore District. Results of such a study are useful in anticipating changes in collapse behaviour of compacted residual soil fills. Experimental results indicated that the cyclic wetting and drying process increased the degree of expansiveness of the residual soils and reduced their collapse tendency. Changes in the swell/collapse behaviour of compacted residual soil specimens from wetting drying effects are attributed to reduction in water content, void ratio and possible growth of cementation bonds.     

Global representation of the drying–wetting curves of four engineering soils: experiments and correlations

The main objective of this paper is to examine how different engineering soils react to environmental variations and to provide correlations to characterize their behaviour under null external mechanical stress. Two French and two Algerian soils with liquid limits ranging from 36 to 112 were prepared under both slurry and Proctor compaction conditions, and then subjected to drying–wetting paths with suction controlled from several kPa to several hundreds of MPa. Experimental results are presented in five diagrams to show globally and simultaneously the shrinkage–swelling, saturation–desaturation and water retention characteristics. A reasonable consistency was observed between the oedometric and drying curves of slurry, confirming the equivalence between hydraulic loading (suction) and mechanical loading (consolidation stress) on the volume change behaviour of different soils. As an intrinsic parameter of soil nature, liquid limit was found to have a significant influence on the shrinkage limit, air-entry suction and compressibility of both slurry and compacted samples. For that reason, correlations between these characteristics and liquid limit were set up, providing a good basis for a first estimation of the drying–wetting curves. At the micro-scale, new experimental results were obtained: either on drying or wetting path, the micro-pores were almost unaffected, whereas, when matrix suction increased from 0.1 to 8 MPa, the volume of macro-pores decreased to quasi-closure. At last, the analogy between the compaction and drying–wetting curves, and the comparison of different methods to determine the water retention curve were addressed. Such analogies and comparisons contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms of mechanical stress and suction.     

Modeling of the swelling–shrinkage behavior of expansive clays during wetting–drying cycles

Acta Geotechnica - This paper presents a constitutive model for simulating the swelling–shrinkage volume change of expansive soils during wetting–drying cycles. Based on the concept of...     

Modelling of rutting of two flexible pavements with the shakedown theory and the finite element method

This paper presents a finite element program, for the modelling of rutting of flexible pavements. In its present version, the program incorporates a permanent deformation model for unbound granular materials based on the concept of the shakedown theory developed by Zarka for metallic structures under cyclic loadings and has been used to estimate the permanent deformations of unbound granular materials (UGM) subjected to traffic loading. The calculation is performed in two steps: the first step consists in modelling the resilient behaviour of the pavement in 3D, using non-linear elastic models, to determine the stress field in the pavement. Then stress paths are derived and used to calculate the permanent deformations and the displacements, using a Drucker–Prager yield surface. An application to the prediction of the permanent deformations of experimental pavements with an unbound granular base, tested on the LCPC pavement testing facility is presented.     

裂缝对膨胀土抗剪强度指标影响的试验研究

基于室内直剪试验,测定了膨胀土经历干湿循环后的抗剪强度指标。试验基本反映了膨胀土在干湿循环过程中裂缝的开展现象,揭示了正是由于裂缝的开展使膨胀土强度降低。结果表明,无论是黏聚力还是内摩擦角随裂缝的开展,都会产生一定程度的衰减,相比之下,裂缝对黏聚力的影响更加突出,对其取值也应更为谨慎。膨胀土的抗剪强度随裂缝的开展而衰减的规律符合双曲线模式,提出反映膨胀土抗剪强度随干湿循环次数增加,实际上是随裂缝的开展,而降低规律的经验公式。工程实际中膨胀土的抗剪强度反映的是包含各种裂隙的土体复合强度,因此在设计中,强度参数的取用应以考虑裂隙作用的土体强度为基本依据。所建议的方法可以使今后研究膨胀土裂隙的发生、发展对抗剪强度的影响变得相对简单,具有可操作性。     

Shakedown analysis of a slope with cyclic groundwater level

Groundwater levels vary with precipitation and other environmental impacts, rendering wetting and drying cycles in parts of a slope. It may be quite disadvantageous, as groundwater has been implicated as a crucial controlling factor in slope stability. The wetting–drying cycles can be considered as cyclic loads for the slope. In such cases, a shakedown analysis is appropriate for the long‐term safety evaluation. This paper presents an upper bound shakedown analysis method based on strong version of Koiter's theorem to evaluate slope stability. An element integration method is employed to provide limit and shakedown safety factors for the slope. For plane slip surfaces or logarithmic spiral slip surfaces, the validity of the method is verified by two documented examples. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Influence of wetting–drying cycles on swell–shrink behaviour of GPA-reinforced expansive clay beds

ABSTRACT

Granular pile-anchor (GPA) technique is an innovative tension-resistant foundation technique which can effectively ward off the dual swell–shrink problem posed by expansive clays. The other tension-resistant foundation techniques are drilled piers, belled piers and under-reamed piles. Laboratory scale model studies and field scale experiments on GPAs revealed that swelling of expansive clay beds could be effectively controlled by GPA technique. This paper presents results obtained from laboratory scale model studies on GPA-reinforced expansive clay beds subjected to alternate cycles of wetting and drying. Swelling and shrinkage of the clay beds were monitored for three wetting–drying cycles (N) spanning a time period of 300 days. The clay beds were reinforced with varying number of GPAs (n = 0, 1, 2 and 3). Swelling (mm) and shrinkage (mm) of the clay beds in a given wetting–drying cycle decreased with increasing number of GPAs. Further, swelling (mm) and shrinkage (mm) significantly decreased with increasing number of wetting–drying cycles (N) also. For a given number of GPAs (n), swelling and shrinkage decreased with increase in depth from the top of the clay bed too.     

多次干湿循环后土-水特征曲线的模拟

目前对于土体的干湿循环过程中变形、强度变化规律研究较多,而对经过多次干湿循环后土-水特征曲线的试验研究较少。由于吸力平衡需要时间太长,对干湿循环过程中土-水特征曲线的研究也多限于单次的干湿循环试验。但考虑到实际岩土工程中气候条件的多变性和自然环境的复杂性,一般土体均要经历多次干湿循环,因此,对多次干湿循环后的土-水特性曲线研究显得非常重要。结合已有的试验数据总结脱湿曲线与吸湿曲线随着干湿循环次数的变化规律,通过引入一个与干湿循环次数有关的函数,提出能预测多次干湿循环后土-水特征曲线的方法。本方法仅需土-水特征曲线的首次干湿循环脱湿与吸湿曲线和塑性指数,就可以预测多次干湿循环后的土-水特征曲线。     

Influence of suction cycles on the soil fabric of compacted swelling soil

The soil fabric plays an important role in complex hydromechanical behaviour of the expansive soils. This article addresses the influence of the wetting and drying paths on the soil fabric of compacted bentonite and silt mixtures at two different initial dry densities corresponding to loose and dense states. To obtain the hydric response of the soil, two suction imposition techniques were used: osmotic technique for the suction range less than 8.5 MPa and the vapour equilibrium or the salt solution technique for the suction range between 8.5 and 287.9 MPa. Additionally, the soil fabric analysis was performed using mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and nitrogen gas adsorption (BET) techniques. The dense samples produced cumulative swelling strains during the suction cycles, while shrinkage was observed for the loose samples. The suction cycles induced an equilibrium state indicative of the elastic behaviour of the samples. The soil fabric analysis showed that regardless of the soil's initial state (loose or dense), the samples obtained the same soil fabric at the equilibrium state. The experimental results illustrated also the existence of an elastic void ratio (e_0el) where the compacted soils at this state present an elastic hydric behaviour during the successive suction cycles.     

Influence of Drying on the Stiffness and Strength of Cement-Stabilized Soils

Nowadays, improving the strength and deformation properties of soft soils by deep soil mixing is a commonly used technique. There is also an increasing interest in the use of this technique for foundation/structural elements and excavation retaining walls applications. The compressive strength and elastic modulus of the soil mix material are key parameters in the design of these structures. However, there is very limited information available on the impact of exposure to air drying (in the case of retaining wall) on the strength and stiffness of cement stabilized soils. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of different curing conditions (immersion in water, cycles of wetting and drying, continuous air drying) on the mechanical properties of soils treated with cement in the laboratory. Free–free resonance tests and unconfined compression tests were performed on specimens of silt and sand treated with blastfurnace slag cement. Strength increases more rapidly than stiffness between 7 and 30 days. The strength of stabilized soils submitted to cyclic wetting and drying before the cement hydration process is complete continues to increase. As long as the periods of drying do not induce microcracks, the stiffness of the treated soil specimens also increases with time. However, the stiffness is lower than for the specimens cured in water indicating a disruptive effect of the imposed wetting–drying cycles on stiffness. Continuous exposure to air drying inhibits strength development due to insufficient water for hydration. Significant stiffness decreases were observed on specimens of stabilized silt and are attributed to microcracking.     

An elastoplastic model based on the shakedown concept for flexible pavements unbound granular materials

Nowadays, the problem of rutting of flexible pavements linked to permanent deformations occurring in the unbound layers is taken into account only by mechanistic empirical formulas. Finite element modelling of realistic boundary value problems with incremental rheological models will lead to unrealistic calculation time for large cycle numbers. The objective of the authors is to present a simplified model which can be used to model the flexible pavements rutting with the finite elements framework. This method is based on the shakedown theory developed by Zarka which is usually associated to materials like steels. It has been adapted for granular materials by introducing a yield surface taking into account the mean stress influence on the mechanical behaviour and a dependency of the hardening modulus with the stress state. The Drucker–Prager yield surface has been used with a non‐associated flow rule. Comparisons with repeated load triaxial tests carried out on a subgrade soil have been done. These comparisons underline the capabilities of the model to take into account the cyclic behaviour of unbound materials for roads. Finally, a discussion, dealing with the use of the simplified method within a finite element modelling of a full‐scale experiment, is presented. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A hypoplastic model for mechanical response of unsaturated soils

A new constitutive model is developed for the mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils based on the theory of hypoplasticity and the effective stress principle. The governing constitutive relations are presented and their application is demonstrated using several experimental data from the literature. Attention is given to the stiffening effect of suction on the mechanical response of unsaturated soils and the phenomenon of wetting‐induced collapse. All model parameters have direct physical interpretation, procedures for their quantification from test data are highlighted. Quantitative predictions of the model are presented for wetting, drying and constant suction tests. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

粉煤灰改性膨胀土水稳定性试验研究

针对典型中膨胀土及其粉煤灰改性土,进行了击实特性试验,并且在最优含水率、不同压实度状态下,进行了饱水后干密度、压实度变化特征试验,以及不同吸水时间、不同干湿循环次数下的无侧限抗压强度、压缩模量变化规律试验,以此探讨中膨胀土、粉煤灰改性膨胀土的水稳定性特征。试验结果表明：粉煤灰改性土可击实含水率范围较之未改性土宽,这给粉煤灰改性土路堤的施工带来了很大的方便。饱水之后,改性土的干密度和压实度比素土变化小,饱水能力不大,强度变化较小。改性土经过不同吸水时间和干湿循环次数之后,其强度最初发生急剧衰减,但最终趋于稳定。其衰减程度较之未改性土来说,有较大改善,水稳定性良好。     

A random solid‐porous model to simulate the retention curves of soils

This paper describes a random solid‐porous model capable of simulating the structure of porous materials. To this purpose, the grain and pore size distributions as well as the void ratio of the material are required. Solids and pores are distributed at random in the model's space according to a size strategy. Herein, the model is used to simulate the retention curves of soils. The Laplace equation is used to determine the size of the pores able to saturate or dry during a wetting or drying process, respectively. The continuous path principle is used to define those elements that effectively saturate or dry during these processes. With this procedure, it is possible to simulate the main retention curves as well as the scanning curves during wetting–drying cycles. Some experimental results reported in the international literature have been used to test the model. This model can be enhanced to study the mechanical behavior of unsaturated soils. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mechanical behaviour of expansive soils after several drying and wetting cycles

This paper presents results from an experimental study performed on natural and compacted expansive soils in different loose and dense states using principally osmotic oedometers. The loose soils showed significant shrinkage, while the dense soils produced a swelling accumulation during the suction cycles. These cycles induced an equilibrium stage, which indicates an elastic behaviour of the samples under suction cycles. At the end of suction cycles, a loading/unloading test was performed on all samples at different constant suctions to define LC (loading collapse) yield curve as well as the newly defined SC (saturation curve) yield curve. Generally, the suction cycles for the looser soils approached the LC and SC yield curves while they became the same at the equilibrium state. For the denser soils producing the swelling strain accumulation, the unique LC and SC curves were activated together. Additionally, we found that at the equilibrium stage, both initially loose and dense samples presented the same mechanical parameters. In other words, the LC or SC yield curves superimposed for different initial states of the samples at the equilibrium stage. Moreover, these compression curves provided sufficient data to propose a simplified model for the mechanical behaviour of the swelling soils at the equilibrium stage.     

Hydromechanical behaviour of an expansive bentonite/silt mixture in cyclic suction-controlled drying and wetting tests

To further our knowledge of coupling between the hydraulic cycles and mechanical behaviour of the swelling soils, this paper presents an experimental study on a bentonite/silt mixture using an odometer with suction controlled by the osmotic technique. A loading/unloading cycle was applied to each of the samples at different constant suctions (0, 2, 3 and 8 MPa). Moreover, successive wetting and drying cycles were applied under constant vertical stress at a suction range of 0 to 8 MPa, followed by a loading/unloading cycle at similar suctions (0, 2, 3 and 8 MPa). Finally, the compression curves of the aforementioned suctions with and without the application of suction cycles were compared, so as to analyse the influence of hydraulic cycles on the soil fabric and the mechanical parameters. It is observed that the wetting and drying cycles applied to both the micro- and macrostructure significantly influenced the virgin compression index λ(s), the apparent preconsolidation stress p₀(s) and the elastic compression index values κ. However, the hydraulic cycles imposed only on the micro- or macrostructure induce negligible changes in the mechanical parameters of the soil.     

A two‐mechanism elastoplastic model for shakedown of unbound granular materials and DEM simulations

An elastoplastic model has been developed for the finite elements modelling of repeated load triaxial tests. This model is based on the shakedown theory established by Zarka for metallic structures. To the previous works, which were based on the Drucker–Prager yield surface and the plastic potential of Von Mises, a compression cap has been added to each one. The model straightforwardly determines the purely elastic state or the elastic shakedown state or the plastic shakedown state and calculates the deviatoric and the volumetric plastic strains. The calibration of the elastoplastic model has been carried out with DEM simulations and an unbound granular material for roads under repeated load triaxial tests using finite element method. The calculations underline the capabilities of the model to take into account, with a unique formalism, the accumulation of the deviatoric and volumetric plastic strains along the loading cycles. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.