Key characteristics of successful fisheries learning exchanges

This study examines the key characteristics of successful fisheries learning exchanges (FLEs). FLEs are peer-to-peer gatherings in which fishery stakeholders from different communities freely exchange information and experiences surrounding fisheries challenges and solutions. They are usually organized by fishers, non-governmental organizations and governments and are credited as an integral tool for the diffusion and adoption of fisheries management strategies. Despite their numerous perceived benefits within fisheries conservation and management, little research has been conducted on FLEs. This multiple case study addressed the research question: “What are the key characteristics of successful FLEs?” Success metrics were defined during a workshop on FLEs in 2013. For this study, the authors selected six successful FLEs that were presented during the workshop. Documentation of FLEs and key informant interviews with participants and organizers were used as data. The following key elements of successful FLEs emerged from analyses: (1) a clear guiding purpose and flexible objectives, (2) careful and considered selection of participants with diverse professions and conservation beliefs, (3) a mix of activities including giving presentations, conducting site visits, talking with local fishers, spending time on boats or in the water, and participating in cultural activities, and (4) logistical and financial follow-up support, including information dissemination about what participants learned at the FLE. Based on these results, the authors provide recommendations for conducting successful FLEs.     

The scope of fisheries learning exchanges for conservation

Over the past decade, fisheries learning exchanges (FLEs), in which representatives from different fisher communities come together to share marine conservation challenges and solutions, have been produced by a range of non-government organizations (NGOs) and federal agencies. This paper presents an overview of the history and scope of FLEs. A literature review, questionnaire, expert workshop, and key informant interviews were conducted. A content analysis was performed of the key informant interviews using a grounded theory approach. This paper offers a formal definition of a FLE, describes different configurations of FLEs, discusses the utility, common objectives, and common outcomes of FLEs, and outlines a research agenda for future work on FLEs. Organizers have found FLEs to have four main utilities: 1) FLEs leverage peer-to-peer sharing so that participants open each other's horizons for improving fisheries and fishing 2) FLEs catalyze and speed change, 3) FLEs are good for sharing thoughts that are difficult to receive and accept, 4) FLEs facilitate involvement and commitment from relevant parties needed for change. The most commonly documented purposes of FLEs were related to marine reserves, fisheries management strategies, bycatch reduction, and alternative livelihoods to fishing. The most common objectives among the FLEs surveyed were to encourage action or behavior, to openly exchange ideas, and to introduce new technology. As a result of FLEs the common outcomes were that participants were inspired to make changes, new programs were implemented, relationships were built and connections made, and participants enhanced their understanding of marine management strategies.     

Intended and unintended outcomes in fisheries learning exchanges: Lessons from Mexico and Madagascar

Fisheries learning exchanges (FLEs) bring together fisher communities to exchange knowledge and experiences, with the goal of building social capital and disseminating management techniques. In 2015 two groups of octopus fishers from Bahia de los Angeles, Mexico and Sarodrano, Madagascar travelled to Andavadoaka, southwest Madagascar to learn about the temporary fishing closures for octopus used in the region. Octopus fisheries in Madagascar and Mexico differ in several respects, particularly harvesting techniques. The FLE was qualitatively evaluated through participant observation and semi-structured key informant (KI) interviews. Thirty before-and-after interviews were carried out with 16 KIs including visitors, hosts and organisers. Informants suggested that holding the FLE at the same time as the closure openings allowed for learning benefits but carried an important opportunity cost for organisers and host participants, and that shortcomings of planning and translation capacity limited learning opportunities. Several KIs were concerned about the applicability of the Malagasy management model to the Mexican context concerned, and the FLE may have had unforeseen consequences since Malagasy fishers were excited to learn a new fishing method (trapping) from the visitors: if effective, trapping could negatively impact Malagasy octopus stocks. The exchange of knowledge in the FLE was primarily one-way, from host to visitor, and most organisers did not view themselves as participants. Recommendations to improve the effectiveness of future FLEs include: (i) improving facilitation and translation capacity to promote dialogue, (ii) focusing on key messages, (iii) selecting appropriate participants and (iv) recruiting a specialist to organise and lead exchanges.     

Fisheries learning exchanges and sea turtle conservation: An effort between Mexico,Cuba and the U.S. to engage Cuban coastal communities in non-consumptive alternative behaviors

The purpose of this short communication is to describe the Third International Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation and Fisheries Exchange that took place from April 22–30, 2009 on Cuba’s Isla de la Juventud [Isle of Youth]. A group of 28 fishers, conservationists, marine scientists and fisheries managers from Cuba, Mexico and the U.S. gathered at Siguanea Bay off the island’s southwest coast. The goals of the exchange were to 1) provide a forum for sea turtle experts and fishing communities in Cuba, Mexico, and the U.S. to share experiences on conservation activities, 2) develop the scientific basis for future conservation in this highly biologically important region of Cuba, and 3) increase support by Cuban fishers for local sea turtle conservation efforts. During the exchange, participants met with local Cuban fishers about the challenges of conserving sea turtle populations while maintaining their fishing livelihoods, shared solutions developed by fishers to accomplish the same in Mexico, and undertook field and cultural activities. Key outcomes for the exchange include an improved understanding of sea turtle bycatch off the Isla de la Juventud, enhanced collaboration among the three nations in turtle conservation, and increased motivation by fishers to participate in sea turtle research and conservation. Additionally, as a direct result of this exchange, the community of Cocodrilo on the Isla de la Juventud has hosted annual sea turtle festivals that increase support for turtle conservation efforts by the local community.     

Connecting fishers to conserve a transpacific ambassador: A trinational fisheries learning exchange

Fisheries learning exchanges (FLE) can be useful for enhancing fisheries management. Reversing the decline of the North Pacific loggerhead turtle is a priority articulated in US, Japanese, and Mexican natural resources policy. However, by 2005, while nesting beach protection was strong in Japan and bycatch reduction had been achieved in U.S. Hawaii-based longline fisheries, bycatch mortality was very high in Mexican artisanal fisheries and believed to be problematic in Japanese coastal fisheries. Efforts to conserve the population were hindered by lack of understanding and cooperation by and between fishers, conservation practitioners, scientists, and managers of all three countries. The authors produced a trinational FLE with participants from Japan, Mexico, and Hawaii to share bycatch challenges and develop solutions. The trinational FLE gave fishers and other participants new, otherwise unattainable knowledge, perspectives, and experiences that empowered them as leaders among their peers, resulting in unexpectedly strong cultural and conservation outcomes that included: a) understanding of the myriad threats to loggerheads throughout their ranges and lifetimes, b) development of a transpacific conservation partnerships to undertake coordinated recovery efforts, c) participatory research to develop and test bycatch reduction technological and practical solutions for Japan and Mexico, and d) hundreds of juvenile loggerheads spared per yr from bycatch mortality via changes in fishing practices by FLE participants. The authors conclude that the reciprocal FLE can serve as a practical tool with potential for broad application for empowering fishers and other fisheries stakeholders to improve fisheries.     

Destructive gear use in a tropical fishery: Institutional factors influencing the willingness-and capacity to change

The aim of this study was to empirically assess institutional aspects shaping fishers’ behavior leading to unsustainable resource use, by using the example of destructive drag-net fishing in Zanzibar, Tanzania. A broad institutional approach was used to specifically assess institutional factors influencing the fishers’ reasons for the current use of destructive drag-nets as well as their willingness- and economic capacity to change to less destructive gears. Different regulative, normative, cultural-cognitive and economic factors (tradition, group-belonging, social acceptance, common practice, identity of drag-net users and weak economic capacity) were identified as critical elements influencing the current use of destructive gears, as well as obstructing changes to other gears. Hence, the importance of addressing all of these factors, matching to the different contexts, rather than focusing on fast-moving regulative measures, is emphasized to increase chances of management success. More promising approaches would be resource allocations to more sustainable fishing gears, well-managed gear exchange programs, as well as alterations of slow-moving normative and cultural factors, e.g. awareness raising on the advantages of more sustainable fishing gears, their traditional and cultural values, information on the actual income they generate, as well as education and an exchange of traditional knowledge on how to use them.     

Fishery cooperatives in Cuba: Potential benefits,legal feasibility,and governance pre-conditions

Currently there is a strong interest in Cuba in improving the performance of the fisheries sector with respect to social, biological, and economic outcomes. Many important fishery resources appear to be overexploited, and previous fishery regulations have had mixed success in restoring fishery stocks. The current fishing pressure could also have adverse impacts on other valuable ecosystem services that support economic activities such as dive tourism and recreational fishing. A new State policy to expand cooperative enterprises to non-agricultural sectors provides an opportunity for fishery cooperatives to be created for the first time since the early years of the Cuban Revolution. This paper explores the potential ecological, social, and economic benefits of adopting fishery cooperatives as a co-management scheme for Cuba's marine fisheries. It concludes that well-designed fishery cooperatives can offer substantial benefits to the management of the fishery sector. Based on an analysis of the relative success of fishing cooperatives worldwide, guidelines are provided for the design of fishery cooperatives in Cuba.     

Organizing coordination in a public marine research and management advice organization: The case of the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research

Public organizations involved in marine management are increasingly confronted with coordination challenges in marine governance. This study examines why and how the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research (IMR) reorganized its formal coordination structures between the areas of fisheries management and marine environmental management. The findings indicate that organizing efficient and, at the same time, legitimate coordination structures between different areas of marine governance is a “wicked” organizational problem with no ultimate and single optimal solution. In contrast to the assumptions of classical organization and management theory, the study finds that the reorganization of formal coordination structures is not necessarily driven for reasons of efficiency and perceived coordination problems. Instead, public marine management organizations also change their organizational structures to live up to external expectations to adopt modern management concepts, such as the Ecosystem Approach to Management (EAM). However, the study indicates that the adoption of the EAM has stimulated coordination and integration efforts in the research and advisory activities of the IMR.     

Beyond sustainability: is government obliged to increase economic benefit from fisheries in the face of industry resistance?

Substantial economic opportunities have been identified in many Australian fisheries but may remain unimplemented due to the perception that the role of government is to ensure harvests are biologically sustainable, while economic decisions should be left to the commercial industry. This paper explores the role of government in driving changes that increase revenue and profit from fisheries (termed economic benefit). Australian fisheries resources are managed by eight different jurisdictions. While each have separate legislation, there is invariably a responsibility to manage on behalf of, and to the benefit of the public, who are the owners of the resource. This paper uses case studies to explore how government can struggle to determine the public interest, separate this from private interests and then implement management changes to ensure the public utility is maximised. Common problems were: (i) overarching economic objectives, which define who should benefit, were often ambiguous and open to interpretation; (ii) the public interest was usually abstract and often under-represented in decision-making processes, (in contrast to industry, who have direct representation); (iii) special interest groups were often able to lobby against changes; and (iv) government was often reluctant to seize opportunities to increase economic benefit when there was significant industry opposition to management changes. In drawing attention to these challenges and how they have been overcome historically, it is argued that government has both a role and requirement under their legislative objectives to take the lead in implementing measures that increase the economic benefit from Australian fisheries.     

Managing catch of marine megafauna: Guidelines for setting limit reference points

Limit reference points (LRPs) for catch, which correspond to thresholds to undesirable population or ecosystem states, offer a consistent, objective approach to management evaluation and prioritization across fisheries, species, and jurisdictions. LRPs have been applied successfully to manage catch of some marine megafauna (elasmobranchs, marine reptiles, seabirds, and marine mammals) in some jurisdictions, such as the use of Potential Biological Removal (PBR) to manage incidental mortality of marine mammals under the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act. However, implementation of ecosystem-based management is still in its infancy globally, and LRPs have not yet been widely adopted for marine megafauna, particularly for incidental catch. Here, guidelines are proposed for estimating catch LRPs for marine megafauna, with particular attention to resolving common technical and political challenges, including (1) identifying management units, population thresholds, and risk tolerances that align with common conservation goals and best practices, (2) choosing catch LRP estimators, (3) estimating input parameters such as abundance and productivity, (4) handling uncertainty, and (5) dealing with mismatches between management jurisdictions and population boundaries. The problem of cumulative impacts across sectors is briefly addressed. These guidelines, grounded in marine policy, science, precedent, and lessons learned, should facilitate wider application of catch LRPs in evaluation and management of fisheries impacts on marine megafauna, in support of global commitments to conserve biodiversity and manage fisheries responsibly.     

基于XML的实时海洋数据传输网络系统

近年来,在海洋灾害预测、预报等海洋信息产品的开发中,对准确、大量、连续、实时的海洋要素监测数据的依赖性日趋增强。同时,由于海洋数据的复杂性,数据来源的多源性,数据平台异构,数据格式不规范等原因,增大了数据集成的难度,降低了数据使用的效率。文章提出了用XML作为传输媒介,结合Socket网络通信技术,建立实时海洋数据传输网络系统,实现了海洋数据集成与交换格式的统一,屏蔽了影响海洋数据集成和使用效率的因素。文章对XML在海洋信息产品开发中的应用做出了有益的探索和尝试,旨在促进XML在我国海洋信息领域的应用。     

Constraints on community participation in salmon fisheries management in Northwest Russia

Salmon fishing used to be the primary source of income in many rural areas of Arkhangelsk oblast in northwest Russia. People who settled in the area received a name Pomory, from Russian po moriu, meaning by sea, because their subsistence activities became marine fishing and hunting and seafaring. Local fisheries have undergone significant changes as post-Soviet Russia embraced the market economy and the state introduced fishing concessions. The current Russian law only allows fishing for salmon through officially registered recreational or commercial fisheries. Both these options are often either unavailable or unaffordable to rural dwellers, which leaves them with limited or no legal access to their traditional salmon fisheries. There has been a growing concern for protecting communities’ fishing rights among wider society in Arkhangelsk oblast. City activists promoted Pomory identity and appealed to the Russian government to grant Pomory an indigenous status to secure their access to fisheries. Although Pomor activism did not reach most of its proclaimed goals, it has contributed to promoting the image of Arkhangelsk oblast as a homeland to Pomor fishing. This image has played an important part in what Arkhangelsk authorities have called socially-oriented fisheries management. Officials have made good attempts to better accommodate rural communities’ access to fishing resources. Yet, these attempts have failed to include fishermen as active participants in the process. This paper looks at constraints on community participation in fisheries management in Russia. It considers both historical and contemporary reasons for the low participation of local community in fisheries management.     

Controlling incidental catch: An economic analysis of six management options

The authors identify a management approach to the problem of incidental catch and utilize that approach to evaluate six management options which are being considered to control incidental catch in the US fishery conservation zone of the Bering Sea. The evaluation is in terms of the ability of management to minimize the impact and control costs of incidental catch. The authors conclude that the use of economic disincentives tends to be preferable due to the inefficiencies and extensive information requirements of the alternative options.     

An overview of marine fisheries management in China

China is the world's largest country in terms of fish production, yet its fisheries management is comparatively unknown outside the country. This article gives an overview of the current management system and highlights some of its challenges. In the past 30 years, the Department of Fishery Administration has formulated and organized a series of conservation and management regimes and measures. The most important tools are minimum mesh size regulation and a range of input control measures, including seasonal closures and attempts to control fishing capacity through licensing and limiting total engine power. However, fisheries output is only controlled through a nation-wide total catch limit. Certain progress has been achieved, but there are still problems as the resource situation is poor. While the existing measures could, in principle, improve sustainability, their enforcement is insufficient, and they do not limit fishing effort in a way that would allow recovery.     

环抱式港区水体交换能力数值研究——以闸坡渔港为例

环抱式港池的水体交换能力强弱对港池的水质有重要影响,水体交换通道是改善港池水质的有效措施。本研究以闸坡渔港防波堤改造工程为例,采用不规则三角网格和有限体积方法,在潮流数模研究成果的基础上,建立平面二维对流-扩散数学模型,开展闸坡渔港扩建前后水体交换能力数值模拟研究,评估工程前后港内水体半交换周期和水体交换率。研究结果表明,闸坡渔港的水体交换能力较强,工程前水体半交换时间为129 h,工程后闸坡渔港水体半交换时间为104 h。工程后洲仔峡防波堤被改为涵洞式桥梁,使渔港与外海形成了水体交换通道,增加了港池内外水体相互作用和水体交换量,相应的水体交换能力增强。而港池外的两个水产养殖区域由于与外海相连,水体交换能力较强,工程前后该区域水体交换能力变化不大。     

Challenges to the use of consensus building in integrated coastal management

An electronic forum involving 15 coastal managers was conducted in order to identify and explain the challenges involved in using consensus-building methods to resolve coastal management issues. The forum's participants generated a list of ten challenges. Getting participants committed to the consensus-building process was identified as the major problem. Participants reported four factors that may affect negatively the willingness of participants to commit to the process. These factors are the novelty of consensus building, the lack of incentive to seek a compromise, the apprehension of having to negotiate and the uncertainty of the outcome. The paper concludes with proposed strategies to overcome these factors.     

铁山湾建港前后水体交换能力的数值模拟

铁山湾是北部湾东北部较大的海湾,水深条件好,可用岸线长。为研究铁山湾建港工程前后湾内的水体交换能力,文章建立了平面二维的水动力模型以及平面二维对流—扩散模型,率定后水动力学模型模拟结果与实测结果吻合良好。运用二维对流—扩散模型计算了湾内不同区域的水体半交换时间,模拟结果表明：铁山湾的水体交换能力较强,工程前水体半交换时间为129天,海域的水体交换能力主要受铁山湾潮汐作用的影响。铁山湾潮汐作用较强,潮差较大,且铁山湾口门开阔,这都为铁山湾的水体交换提供了良好的条件。工程后铁山湾水体半交换时间为142天,工程前后铁山湾水体半交换时间仅相差13天,说明工程方案对铁山湾水体交换能力无重大影响。     

Enabling people to create change: Capacity building for Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF) implementation in Southern Africa

Recent studies report that 80% of marine resources are fully or over exploited. In an attempt to address this, countries are moving towards implementing an Ecosystems Approach (EAF) to Fisheries management. A strong component of an EAF is the involvement of fishing sector stakeholders in the making of decisions that affect them but, despite this, no formal or informal information exchange or training on this and other EAF concepts existed in South Africa prior to the development of the Responsible Fisheries Programme (RFP). The RFP training course design integrates theoretical presentations and practical exercises, deliberately involving various stakeholders with differing perspectives and roles. The RFP has trained a total of 600 individuals thus far (May 2007-January 2010) from various fisheries sectors in southern Africa. Sampling evaluation forms processed across all fisheries sectors trained, indicated that participants found the practical exercises very useful and valued the group work, which allowed for interactions between the different stakeholder groups. Numerous positive benefits derived from the training are described by means of case studies. Lessons drawn from the roll out of the training include: the forging of a common understanding through stakeholder participation; the benefits of a participatory approach and the appropriate use of local and international case studies to illustrate concepts. Results of the training carried out to date indicate that the RFP training can improve compliance of fisheries regulations, adherence to voluntary measures and uplift the skills of fishers. Such benefits will increase the likelihood of long-term sustainability of southern African fisheries.     

Striking the right balance? Applying the jurisprudence of international tribunals to coastal state innovations in international fisheries governance

While the coastal State has ‘sovereign rights’ with respect to the exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of the living resources of the exclusive economic zone, including the right to take the necessary enforcement measures, these rights are not as all-encompassing as they first appear. In practice, the geographic and substantive limitations on the coastal State's jurisdiction in the exclusive economic zone provide significant challenges to effective fisheries governance and enforcement. This paper considers the approaches that have been adopted – or could be adopted – by coastal States seeking to improve the reach and effectiveness of their jurisdiction over the living resources of the exclusive economic zone, by reference to the current state of jurisprudence from international courts and tribunals.     

Marine and coastal policy in the UK: Challenges and opportunities in a new era

Marine and coastal policy in the UK has faced a number of significant changes in recent years, most notably the passing of the Marine and Coastal Access Act in 2009. These changes have brought significant challenges and opportunities for all those involved in the management and use of the UK's marine and coastal environment. This new era of marine policy inspired the UK's first Marine and Coastal Policy forum held in June 2011. In this introductory paper the global context of marine policy changes and the themes which emerged from the forum, forming the basis of the articles in this special issue, are outlined. It is concluded that there is a high level of engagement, capacity and willingness of key stakeholders to work collaboratively to address the environmental, social and economic complexities of managing the marine and coastal environment. It is both evident and encouraging that progress is being made and the many challenges faced in this new era give rise to a number of opportunities to develop new ideas and effective mechanisms for finding solutions.