Maritime Europe and EU enlargement. A geopolitical perspective

The 2004 enlargement of the European Union (EU), as well as the further enlargements planned from 2007 onwards (Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia and Turkey), entail changes of a geo-political nature that not only imply an increase in size (a rise in the number of States, new boundaries), but, more especially, also involve a shift in the EU's maritime status, with its projection towards the Atlantic now being checked by a swing towards continental Europe and its inland seas. In view of the new political map being drawn up, two questions beg to be asked: to what extent is Europe's maritime condition being strengthened; and, does the new maritime Europe constitute an opportunity, or does it aggravate the already-existing problems and threats?     

海警视域下的海上安全威胁及应对策略

当前海警机构在海上遂行任务时面临多种形式的海上安全威胁,除常规安全威胁外,以海上军事冲突威胁和海上恐怖主义威胁为代表的非常规安全威胁正使海警面临越发严峻的海上综合实战能力考验。文章通过对海警视域下海上安全威胁的综合分析,提出提升装备体系化建设水平、增强人员实战化训练效果和探索海警多能化发展模式等应对策略,以期为海警未来妥善应对各类海上安全威胁及风险挑战提供有益参考。     

Changing maritime scenarios. The geopolitical dimension of the EU Atlantic Strategy

The European Union׳s Integrated Maritime Policy (EU IMP) is being developed in the framework of a process that is reshaping maritime geographical scenarios and world geopolitics. This process is characterised by a change in States׳ territoriality resulting from their jurisdictional expansion. Over 60% of coastal States in the world possess territory with a more extensive maritime component than the terrestrial component which helps to reaffirm the fragmentation of maritime space and stresses the national vision of the oceans. Unlike the process of ocean space fragmentation that results from its nationalisation the EU Integrated Maritime Policy has a global and cooperative vision, which is particularly evident in the Atlantic Strategy. In this context, this article aims to: (i) provide a first estimate of the size and extent of the territorial changes resulting from jurisdictional claims available to date and their mapping; (ii) consider the case of the European Union as one of special significance with its express policy of maritime spatial projection. The conclusions point to a redefinition of the large territorial pieces of the global geopolitics puzzle and the emergence of a new Atlanticism associated with the EU׳s maritime policy.     

Investigation of strategies to improve the recycling effectiveness of waste oil from fishing vessels

The marine ecological environment and fishery resources can be severely polluted or destroyed by waste oil from fishing vessels if they are emitted directly into the ocean without any proper pre-treatment process. International conventions such as MARPOL 73/78 regulate waste-oil emissions and require the installation of a waste oil–water separator only for ocean-going ships of over 400 gross tons. Hence, these international conventions are not applicable to most fishing ships due to their low gross tonnages. In addition, space on most fishing vessels is too limited to allow waste-oil storage tanks or a waste oil-water separator to comply with international maritime regulations. Because a significant amount of waste oil is produced by fishing vessels around the world every day, effective strategies or measures are needed to prevent this waste oil from polluting the marine environment. This study thus investigates strategies and measures for improving the effectiveness of waste-oil collection from fishing vessels. This study found that existing procedures for the collection and treatment of waste lubricating oil on land could be applied to the management of waste oil and bilge water from fishing vessels. Sufficient oil–water separators and storage facilities for the collection of waste oil should be placed at each fishing port and shipyard. Fishermen should then be required to deliver their waste oil to these storage facilities, from where it can be transported to legal recycling companies for further treatment. In addition, fishing harbor authorities should bear definitive responsibility for monitoring the illegal dumping of waste oil and for checking the waste-oil record books of fishing vessels. Each maritime country should enforce relevant laws and regulations to reduce the emission of waste oil from fishing vessels into the ocean.     

Ocean governance in a competitive world. The BRIC countries as emerging maritime powers—building new geopolitical scenarios

Owing to their style and economic impact, Brazil, Russia, India and China (the BRIC countries) are destined to become relevant actors in the new ocean governance. The following working hypothesis is sustained: the BRIC countries, due to the potential of their maritime territories, can be considered to be emerging maritime powers capable of displacing some of the historical maritime powers. This would also entail a shift of strategic maritime space towards the southern hemisphere. Other emerging maritime scenarios associated with the BRIC countries include the Russian Arctic, and the Indo-Pacific ocean belt, or “string of pearls”, as it is known. Factors such as competitiveness, maritime leadership and ocean governance are thus placed in a new economic and political context where they might be redefined and adapted to the circumstances of the BRIC block and other emerging countries, the majority of which are subject to demographic pressure and a high degree of poverty. The most relevant conclusions point to the emergence of a new type of neo-navalism, on the one hand—a BRIC version of traditional sea power and, on the other, a possible threat to the EU's Integrated Maritime Policy under pressure from strong competitiveness in a highly internationalised environment, forcing changes in its original approach with its distinct social profiles and commitment to latest generation rights.     

Maritime security in Indonesia: Towards a comprehensive agenda?

Against the backdrop of Indonesian President Widodo's expressed intention to turn his country in to a maritime nation again, this article examines the way in which the Indonesian state understands and utilises the concept of maritime security. The article achieves this aim by discussing the results of a Training Needs Analysis of key Indonesian state maritime security actors, conducted as part of the first phase of a multi-stakeholder project examining how Indonesia's maritime security capacity can be improved.The article illustrates how key maritime actors within the Indonesian state demonstrate a diverse understanding of what maritime security is, and argues that there is a demonstrable willingness on their part to look beyond a narrow conceptualisation of security in the maritime domain, which is solely focused on military threats and the defence of the state, towards something more comprehensive. Here the Indonesian approach to maritime security mirrors in practice conceptual trends encapsulated in the emergence of maritime security studies. The article concludes that there is the potential for a more comprehensive maritime security agenda to take hold in Indonesia but that this will require continued strategic and policy focus on the maritime domain within the country, alongside an emphasis on partnership building both within the state and between the state and non-state actors.Consistent dialogue around how maritime security is conceptualised would be helpful in supporting these two conditions the article posits, elaborating the value of the human security lens for those interested in a more comprehensive approach to maritime security.     

Manifestation of maritime piracy as an additional challenge for global conservation

Hostile acts against ships and mariners remain a global social and political phenomenon which usually reflects a high degree of socioeconomic vulnerability. The identification of the causes and driving factors behind the deteriorating maritime security has received considerable attention. However, their potential impact upon biodiversity conservation initiatives remains poorly evaluated. In the present study the spatial overlap between biodiversity hotspots and hotspots of hostile maritime acts are explored. The majority of such hostile acts occur in economically vulnerable countries, with the operation of their Marine Protected Areas largely depending on the revenue generated by visitors. Given that hostile maritime acts could cause financial losses and increase social and political instability, they could significantly alter conservation efficiency. Thus, it is critical to consider the way of incorporating maritime security risks into conservation agendas.     

Compliance with international emission regulations: Reducing the air pollution from merchant vessels

In September 1997, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted an international convention protocol to reduce air pollution from ships, in order to achieve sustainable maritime development. This protocol has been approved by 15 member countries and will be enforced in May 2005. Pollutants emitted from ships, such as nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, sulfur oxides, etc. will be regulated by this convention through ship inspections and issuance of certificates. Ships belonging to maritime countries such as Taiwan, which sail around the world and berth in commercial ports, must obey this convention. This study has investigated possible strategies, which may be adopted by maritime countries to conform to this IMO convention in order to reduce the air pollution from ships. A sea-going ship must prepare EIAPP and IAPP certificates for inspection by port-state-control officials, when the ship is anchored at a maritime port. These port-state-control officials may also require the continuous detection and sampling of a ship's emissions, while it is berthed at the port. Legislative support is necessary for successful implementation of these safeguards. It is suggested, therefore, that the administration of both navigational and environmental protection, in maritime countries, cooperate in the revision of relevant federal laws, to implement the provisions of the MARPOL 73/78/97 convention; in this way, the air pollution from ships can be effectively controlled. Installation of advanced detection equipment can effectively detect any ships’ violations of air pollution regulations. The Harbor Affairs’ Bureau should also establish a database of air pollution inspections for ships berthed within their harbor, requiring that ships’ equipment comply with the requirements of the MARPOL convention, for the reduction of air pollution.     

National ocean policy—new opportunities for Malaysian ocean development

Being a littoral state, Malaysian maritime sectors provide the basis for the growth and development of marine-related activities. As the country enters the new millennium along with the ‘2020 Vision’ which serves as the basic template against which the economic performance of these sectors should be judged, it poses a new challenge for Malaysia in developing these sectors. This paper attempts to address three basic issues: Firstly, is there any national ocean policy in place? Secondly, are the maritime sectors adequately organized to play an important role in achieving the objectives? Thirdly, what are the opportunities available in developing the ocean?It can be seen that existing policies to develop comprehensive ocean governance have not received the full attention they deserve. Organizational structures governing the ocean for implementing national policies are well in place but in a fragmented and uncoordinated fashion. As a result, sectoral and intersectoral management problems were created such as multiple-use conflicts, overlapping of jurisdiction and duplication of efforts. Environmental problems have also not been properly addressed. A few sectors have been identified as offering opportunities to further develop the Malaysian maritime areas. Among these are marine education and human resources development, marine tourism and the seafood industry.     

基于大数据的复杂海运环境下船舶路径自动生成方法

随着全球经济的快速发展,海上运输由于其运力大、运费低而变得更具实用性。然而,这也意味着在海上航道行驶的船只正变得越来越多,这将导致在复杂的海洋环境中航海船只发生事故的可能性会很高。据相关历史的统计,在海域中航行缺乏高精度导航数据会导致大量事故,这种累积的事故信息可以被用来提高航海的安全性。本文通过将蕴含在AIS (Automatic Identification System) 大数据中的经验导航信息挖掘出来,以辅助实现复杂海事环境下安全可靠的船舶路径的生成。本文提出了一种基于大数据自动生成船舶路径的新方法。该方法首先在大量船舶轨迹上通过DBSCAN (Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise) 聚类形成不同的轨迹矢量簇。然后,迭代计算轨迹矢量簇的中心线,并从这些中心线之间的节点-弧段拓扑关系来构建航道网络。最后,基于航道网络来实现船舶路径的生成,对于航道网络未覆盖的海域,则通过海洋环境风险栅格的路径规划来实现船舶路径的生成。不同海域不同AIS数据集进行的多次实验结果表明,本文提出的船舶路径生成方法是有效性。     

Maritime piracy confrontations across the globe: Can crew action shape the outcomes?

The recent tightening of military budget constraints has called into question the feasibility of costly multilateral naval intervention used to combat maritime piracy off the eastern coast of Africa. Though past studies agree that the transformation of the Somali economy and government is crucial for a long-term solution to piracy in this part of the world, short to medium-run solutions are needed to bridge the gap. Such solutions should be fiscally sensible and serve as effective deterrents, as well as be applicable in addressing the problem of piracy and maritime armed robbery in other parts of the globe. This paper builds upon the foundations laid in Mejia et al. [12] and Mileski et al. [13] by examining the following question: given that a ship is engaged by pirates, what factors help shape the outcome of the confrontation? This study finds that observable action taken on the part of a ship's crew is extremely effective in decreasing the risk of a ship being successfully robbed or hijacked. There has yet (as of May 2014) to be a reported incident where pirates successfully hijacked a vessel that had a security team on board, and so though the effectiveness of security in this matter can be inferred, it cannot be empirically tested (the same is true – in this study's dataset – of the effect of onboard security on deterring robberies). This may provide some guidance for policymakers; if naval intervention is to be scaled back, the encouragement and oversight of shipping companies’ crew response procedures (and perhaps of onboard security measures) by international governments could pose a valid alternative.     

Nautical education in a changing world: the case of the Netherlands

This paper is a contribution to the strategic question: How can the continuity of the current education infrastructure for the maritime industry be secured? The analysis in the paper is based on concepts from institutional economics, in particular governance of institutional structures. The analysis is applied to the Netherlands. The Dutch maritime sector is described in terms of the institutions that are related to knowledge and education. This analysis shows that these institutions, most of which take the form of explicit organisations, are all very rigid and leave little room for change and renewal. Furthermore, the social and legal structure embedded in the institutional structure strengthens, rather than thwarts, the institutional inertia. The theory on governance and organising capacity offers some short-term solutions. Long-term solutions only emerge if changes are made in the institutional structure of the knowledge infrastructure. As policy priorities, one could select the development of a research agenda for the sector, with wider possibility to fund non-technical maritime research, improvements in information concerning supply and demand of maritime training courses, and maintaining and extending teaching activities as much as possible. The ultimate goal should be to create greater knowledge awareness in the whole maritime sector, where this currently exists only in parts of that sector.     

The Portuguese maritime spatial plan

Numerous national governments and supranational organizations such as the OSPAR Commission, the European Union and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have underlined the importance of maritime spatial planning (MSP) for balancing and solving conflicts between the needs of different sectors and conservation in the marine space. In the last decade, many maritime spatial plans have been developed around the world. The drivers to develop these plans and the approaches to find solutions for the particular problems differ significantly. The Portuguese national marine jurisdiction is one of the largest in Europe. For the continental part, a maritime spatial plan was initiated in 2009, and entered in 2010 in the final stage of approval. One of the driving forces for this MSP initiative was the claim to extend its continental shelf. The development process was led by a multidisciplinary team. Despite the challenges, the existing as well as potential future marine resources and activities were characterized, mapped and categorized. To overcome conflicts resulting from the many overlapping uses and to assure sustainable development of all sectors, a conflict analysis and evaluation of potential future uses were necessary. The applied zoning scheme represented an exercise of conflict solving and proved to be a powerful tool to promote discussion and participation among stakeholders. The successful implementation of Portuguese MSP will rely largely on its ability to provide efficient management, financial and legal mechanisms to achieve the integration of all strategies and spaces under the Portuguese maritime jurisdiction.     

Strategy,policy, and the formulation of maritime cluster typologies

In recent years, clusters of industry have attracted multilateral attention, from academia and practice, alike. Clusters of industry relate to harbouring regional competitiveness; as such, they have come to be considered as important constructs for strategy and policy, that can be deemed as complementary domains. At the same time, maritime clusters are regarded as dynamic cases from a multitude of viewpoints. The concepts of strategic policy, particularly as they pertain to maritime clusters, require deeper understanding and more thorough analysis. In this context, cluster typologies surface as a useful instrument that can offer valuable insight. While this field instils the eventuality of facilitating policy and strategy within clusters, it remains relatively barren. This instance may present the opportunity to better elaborate on the formulation of models and frameworks that address the intricacies within maritime clusters. The research conducted introduces a three-tier framework for the generation of maritime cluster typologies, that bears the potential to enrich strategic management and its eventual policy implications, towards a more streamlined and informed manifestation.     

The Panama Ship Registry: 1917–2017

The Panama Ship Registry has its origins in the year 1917. Nowadays, Panama has the largest vessel registry in the world. The second placed registry in the world ranking is Liberia, which does not have even half the number of Panamanian ships. In this Centennial, the aim of this paper is to analyse the evolution of the Panamanian Registry, the structure of the Panamanian-flagged fleet and the level of compliance with international standards in relation to maritime safety and working conditions. To undertake the analysis, two different qualitative and quantitative approaches are compared and integrated for the evaluation of the Panama Ship Registry: the degree of ratification and enforcement of the Conventions and Recommendations of the International Maritime Organization and International Labour Organization, and the results of Panamanian flagged vessels in inspections carried out within the major Port State Control Memoranda of Understanding. This paper fills a research gap by discussing an approach to the concept of flag of convenience and flag State, Panama is more an international registry, whose role is becoming less important from the points of view of safety or working conditions. The fleet performance evolution has been very positive as evidenced by the data presented in this article regarding Port State Control.     

How sustainable is sustainable marine spatial planning? Part II – The Portuguese experience

With one of Europe׳s largest exclusive economic zones, Portugal has a paramount role in the implementation of EU maritime policies. In the Portuguese context, ocean planning and management are presently undergoing major advances. This paper analyzes and discusses the present state of affairs regarding the Portuguese marine spatial planning (MSP) process, comprising: (1) an update on the status of MSP in Portugal; (2) an analysis on how sustainability concepts are to be implemented in the Portuguese MSP process and (3) a discussion on major challenges to Portuguese MSP long-term sustainability. The Portuguese MSP process can be divided in two phases: development of the “Plano de Ordenamento do Espaço Marítimo” (POEM) – initially intended to be the first Portuguese “marine spatial plan” but then published as a “study”; and development of the Law Proposal 133/XII on marine planning and management – soon to be approved. A key question for the long-term adequacy of Portuguese MSP is how is it addressing environmental sustainability: is it relying on soft or hard sustainability concepts? Is it prioritizing the achievement of good environmental status (GES) or blue growth? In both cases (POEM and Law Proposal), soft sustainability seems to be the underlying principle, because although the ecosystem approach is recognized as fundamental, environmental quality seems to come second when set against economic goals.     

Ecological changes justifying termination or revision of EEZ and EFZ boundaries

Treaties, establishing boundaries to exclusive economic or exclusive fisheries zones, are generally based on environmental and economic circumstances. They delimit maritime entitlements, which are dependent upon coastal geography and they must, as a matter of law, represent equitable solutions. All perpetual treaties are based on the assumption that the circumstances leading to the conclusion of a treaty remain current as long as the treaty is enforceable. However, climate-related changes - such as sea level rise, coastal erosion, extreme weather events, ocean warming and ocean acidification - are altering the environmental circumstances that are essential to many maritime boundary agreements.An unforeseen fundamental change of circumstances can be invoked as grounds for terminating a treaty when the change relates to an essential basis of the treaty and radically transforms the obligations still to be performed. However, a fundamental change cannot justify termination of a treaty if it is caused by the party invoking it or if the treaty establishes a boundary. This rule is codified in Article 62 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.Treaties delimiting sovereign rights to fisheries are not actual boundary treaties because the travaux préparatoires suggest that the boundary exclusion covers only boundaries delimiting territorial sovereignty. Furthermore, the reason for excluding boundary treaties - the need for permanence and stability - is less pertinent for maritime frontiers that fluctuate until settled through treaties or adjudication. Therefore, maritime boundaries can be subject to termination when their essential basis is affected by fundamental environmental changes.     

A comparison between the international and US regimes regulating oil pollution liability and compensation

Despite its search for a universal oil spill liability and compensation regime, the maritime community continues to face the dichotomy between the US approach and that adopted by the rest of the world. Both regimes have a two-tier structure that is composed of a liability scheme and a fund scheme. However, the significant differences between the two regimes can be found in the liability limit of a responsible party and the scope of recoverable damages. This explains the reasons why the US took a unilateral approach instead of participating in the international one. In the short term, it seems that the current dual system will continue. In the long term, however, it would be desirable to establish a unified international regime which would enable all actors to direct their energies toward handling oil spills rather than grappling with unilateral legislation in individual jurisdictions of the world. Even before an establishment of a unified international regime, harmonization between the two regimes would not only be helpful for the ultimate unification, but also desirable for transactions of the industries concerned under the current dual system.     

Safety culture and hazard risk perception of Australian and New Zealand maritime pilots

A survey of the safety culture and hazard risk perception has been carried out involving 77 maritime pilots around Australia and New Zealand, representing more than the 20% of the maritime pilots in each country, in proportional geographic distribution. In 82% of the cases, interviews were carried out face-to-face, based on a questionnaire designed to be completed in less than 1 hour. Questions on 4 different aspects were asked, relating to each pilot's professional background, safety culture and perception of risks, navigation and pilotage hazards and their perception of the pilot's role. The responses indicated that there are issues with regulator identification, commercial pressures on pilots in some locations, incident reporting mechanisms and feedback, training opportunities and improved bridge resource management. In addition to reviewing comments made by pilots, the paper also presents recommendations for consideration in improving operational performance and safety of navigation in ports and regulated waterways. These recommendations can be used by regulators to improve their performance concerning pilotage matters and understand pilots’ concerns.     

面向海运统计的AIS大数据挖掘分析研究

为解决传统海运产业统计方法数据质量不高、时效性差、统计产品陈旧短缺、公信力不足等的问题,提出基于AIS大数据挖掘分析开展海运统计的方法.详细阐述了基于AIS大数据的海运统计分析技术路线、大数据平台技术架构,以及电子围栏分析、航行事件分析、航次分析和统计指标生成等关键模型算法.以2019年3月至5月全球大宗货品船舶的AIS数据应用为例表明,该方法可提供港口、海上通道和大宗货品三方面的海运大数据统计指标,为实现海运即时化、准确化、精细化的统计分析与展现提供了新思路.