Spatial substitution strategies of recreational fishers in response to zoning changes in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Understanding fishers’ responses to marine spatial closures is important for both resource users and managers. Fishing is a major recreational activity in Australia, and recreational fishers are key local resource users within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. In 2004, implementation of a new zoning plan in the park resulted in a reduction in the amount of area available to recreational fishing. A combination of phone, mail, and face-to-face surveys was used to investigate recreational fishers’ choices and spatial redistribution strategies in response to the reduction in fishing area. Approximately 56% of fishers reported losing at least one of their regular fishing locations under the new zoning plan. Fishers generally compensated by shifting their fishing effort to other areas they knew to be good fishing locations, and by finding new areas that they had not exploited previously. Potential implications of these spatial changes in recreational fishing effort for both the marine park and recreational fishers include changes in fishing frequency and satisfaction, reduced fishing quality, restricted access to areas considered to be of high quality for recreational fishing, increased crowding in areas that remain open to fishing, and increased likelihood of localized depletions in popular recreational fishing locations. Identification of the drivers of the spatial distribution of fishing effort, factors affecting fishers’ choices of locations, and adaptation strategies adopted by fishers provide a valuable tool to help understand the impact of spatial fishing closures on fishers and resources.     

Responses and adaptation strategies of commercial and charter fishers to zoning changes in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Fishers' responses to changes in resource access through the imposition of marine protected areas can be a critical factor influencing the likelihood of achieving management objectives.Face-to-face interviews with 114 commercial and charter fishers were conducted to investigate their responses and adaptation strategies to the increase in the size and number of no-take zones imposed by the 2004 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park zoning plan. Despite holding positive attitudes towards marine biodiversity protection, fishers were generally unsupportive of the new zoning plan 5 years after its implementation. Fishers' lack of support was related to the perception that they had not been adequately engaged in the rezoning process and the perception of significant impacts of the zoning plan on fishing businesses. Fishers generally believed that the new zoning plan had a negative impact on their access to productive fishing areas, the numbers of fish they catch, the profitability of their fishing business, and their personal income. In response to the new no-take zones, fishers tended to redistribute their fishing activity to locations closer to their home port, and to locations already known to them through their previous fishing, resulting in an increase in high density fishing locations within the park. Despite the impacts that fishers experienced, most reported that they have adapted their fishing activity and fishing business at least moderately well to the new zoning plan, suggesting that many of the impacts experienced by fishers might be short-term and may decline over time as fishers learn to adapt to the new zoning system. The information provided should prove valuable as a baseline for continued monitoring of the costs and benefits of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park rezoning into the future.     

Obtaining a social licence for MPAs – influences on social acceptability

The biological success of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) depends to a large extent on their social acceptability, sometimes referred to as a social licence. Local resistance has slowed international progress towards a global network of MPAs. The causes of local resistance and limited social acceptability are poorly known, which constrains the development of new planning paradigms that could address these issues. Two case studies in New South Wales, Australia determined the factors that influenced community attitudes towards MPAs. The Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park (PSGLMP) and Batemans Marine Park (BMP) underwent virtually identical and concurrent planning processes, however resistance to the BMP was more intense and sustained. Differences in the demographics, history, local media coverage and social impacts of each marine park contributed to these different community responses. The BMP demonstrated the ‘perfect storm’ of opposition triggers – a community struggling in the transition away from a primary production economy, a highly politicised media dominated by powerful elites with ideological objections to the park, and social impacts sufficiently profound to motivate local citizens to support an active campaign against the park. These impacts included loss of access, identity and increased competition for resources. This research points to the importance of developing a deeper understanding of the social, cultural and political landscape of the communities in which MPAs are proposed and a rethink of planning processes to better incorporate community objectives and knowledge.     

Research and management priorities for Atlantic marine recreational fisheries in Southern Europe

Marine Recreational Fishing (MRF) is an important activity in Europe, with 9 million fishers and generating annually € 6 billion in direct expenditures. However, there is a lack of data and understanding of MRF in Europe, particularly in Southern countries, which prevents a number of fish stocks from being effectively assessed and managed. In November 2016, a participatory workshop on MRF was held in Vigo (Spain) to identify challenges and opportunities for data collection, and to diagnose key research gaps and management issues for MRF in the Southern European Atlantic. Experts from a wide range of disciplines (researchers, policy makers, fisheries managers and commercial and recreational fishers) highlighted that the management of MRF is a challenge due to complex and dispersed legal frameworks, with multiple administrations involved, and overlapping uses of space with commercial fishing, aquaculture, navigation and tourism, among others. The lack of strong and representative fishing associations hampers research and management initiatives. Effective communication between recreational fishers, researchers and fisheries managers is also lacking. Despite the ecological, social and economic relevance of MRF, there is no systematic and comprehensive collection of information on fishing effort, recreational catches, expenses, social profile and access conditions of European recreational fishers. These data would be useful to avoid biases in the assessment of recreational fisheries due to the great diversity of ecosystems, species and typologies of users. Strategic recommendations and research priorities were also identified to address knowledge gaps and are discussed in the context of the management of MRF across Europe.     

Offshore marine protected areas: Divergent perceptions of divers and artisanal fishers

Thorough comprehension of the perceptions of offshore Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) by different local social actors is lacking, especially in developing countries. This study aims to analyze the perceptions and socioeconomic characteristics of divers and artisanal fishers of an offshore MPA, located in Brazilian waters. Data on the perceptions, conflicts, and management of the MPA were gathered through questionnaires and interviews with local actors. The results show that scuba divers and fishers consider the MPA to be very important for biodiversity. They also consider their collaboration in participative management to be of considerable importance, even though they do not form part of the administration. For local actors, the area helps foster the preservation of the marine environment and benefits recreational diving, tourism, and artisanal fishery in local communities. Divers and fishers use the resources and space of the offshore area differently, which results in diverging perceptions and conflicts. Divers propose restricted protection (No-Take Zones), while fishers propose that the MPA should be used exclusively by the poor local communities for artisanal fishing. Conflicts arising from inefficient public administration (lack of environmental zoning, management plans, and participative management) and illegal use of the MPA were also identified. Data stemming from the local actors themselves are central to reducing the conflicts and improving public policies on offshore marine conservation.     

‘It׳s part of me’; understanding the values,images and principles of coastal users and their influence on the social acceptability of MPAs

Improving the social acceptability or ‘social licence’ of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is a key challenge facing countries all around the world. As the world moves slowly towards the establishment of a global network of MPAs, it is increasingly apparent that a greater understanding of social responses to MPAs is required, given they are often met with resistance from local communities. A series of in-depth, semi structured interviews were conducted across coastal users in New South Wales, Australia, including surfers, recreational fishers, professional fishers, spearfishers, walkers, divers, snorkellers, kayakers and other community members. The research identified the values, images and principles at work amongst coastal users to determine the dominant ‘cultural models’ within the community and how these models influenced attitudes towards MPAs. This research indicates that traditional consultation models may not be sufficient to address the full spectrum of community needs, and in fact suggests the need to re-conceive the make -up of ‘the community’ itself. In the context of MPA planning ‘the community’ is not an amalgamation of a range of homogenous stakeholder groups but instead a diverse and complex mix of identities and value systems which are not confined to particular interest groups. Incorporating consideration of the diverse range of values, images and principles found within and across stakeholder groups will require new and innovative approaches to participation and management.     

From a traditionally open access fishery to modern restrictions: Portuguese anglers' perceptions about newly implemented recreational fishing regulations

Saltwater recreational fishing (SRF) in Portugal was for a long time an open-access activity, without restrictions of any kind. Restrictions to control the recreational harvest were first implemented in 2006 and were highly criticized by the angler community, for being highly restrictive and lacking scientific support. The present study aimed to obtain socio-economic data on the recreational shore anglers and gauge their perceptions about recreational fishing regulations and the newly implemented restrictions in Portugal. Roving creel surveys were conducted along the south and south-west coasts of Portugal, during pre and post regulation periods (2006–2007). A total of 1298 valid face-to-face interviews were conducted. Logit models were fitted to identify which characteristics influence anglers' perceptions about recreational fishing regulations. The majority of the interviewed anglers was aware and agreed with the existence of recreational fishing regulations. However, most were against the recreational fishing regulations currently in place. The logit models estimates revealed that Portuguese anglers with a higher level of formal education and income are more likely to agree with the existence of recreational fishing regulations. In contrast, anglers who perceive that more limitations and a better enforcement of commercial fishing would improve fishing in the area are less likely to agree with the existence of SRF regulations. The findings from this study will contribute to inform decision-makers about anglers' potential behaviour towards the new and future regulations. Although the existence of fishing regulations is a good starting point for effective management, the lack of acceptance and detailed knowledge of the regulations in place by fishers may result in lack of compliance, and ultimately hinder the success of recreational fishing regulations in Portugal.     

Recreational use of offshore wind farms: Experiences and opinions of sea anglers in the UK

The expansion of offshore wind farms (OWFs) is likely to increase conflict with other marine users as different sectors compete for space. There may also be positive interactions, as the artificial reef effects from energy infrastructure have the potential to sustain and enhance fishing opportunities. Recreational sea angling is an important sector within the UK but the experiences and opinions of UK sea anglers with respect to OWFs have not been documented. To address this, an online survey was undertaken with recreational anglers around the UK (n=199). Respondents represented a range of socio-demographic and angling characteristics, although male, more frequent and older fishers as well as club members were over-represented compared to a 2012 national survey. One quarter of the respondents had fished around the perimeter of or within an OWF, most on multiple occasions, and 73% of those who had not expressed a willingness to do so in future. Anglers reported both positive and negative effects on catch success when fishing near or within OWFs compared to their experiences of the same site prior to OWF development. Outcomes for individual species were also mixed. Anglers recognised the potential artificial reef effects of OWFs and their role as a “safe haven”, particularly due to the exclusion of commercial fishers. Negative perceptions included restricted access, harm to marine wildlife, and visual impact. There is little evidence that OWFs will have a significant economic impact on recreational fishing, as most anglers are unlikely to change their behaviour in response to future developments.     

Recreational fishing in a time of rapid ocean change

Fishing is an important recreational activity for many Australians, with one in every four people participating every year. There are however many different pressures exerted on Australian fish stocks, including climate-related changes that drive changes in local fish abundances. It is inevitable that recreational fishers will need to adapt to these changes. When resource abundance alters substantially, user adaptation to the new situation is required and policies and incentives may need to be developed to encourage behaviour change. It is important to correctly anticipate fisher's response to these policies and incentives as much as possible. Improved understanding of recreational fisher's likely adaptation decisions and the nature and timing of these decisions can help avoid unintended consequences of management decisions. Based on a survey of recreational fishers in the south-east Australian climate hotspot, we identify 4 relevant dimensions to recreational fisher's behavioural adaptation. There are differences in adaptation timing (early, late, and non-adaptors). Non-adaptors are characterised by greater cultural attachment to fishing and stronger perceptions of the factors that influence abundance change. The fisher's preferred adaptation responses and the timing of the behavioural response differs between decreasing versus increasing fish abundance. Insight into perspectives and expectations on how recreational fishers might adapt to changes is useful to develop a set of behavioural incentives that appeal to different groups but remain efficient and effective in their implementation. Such knowledge can create new pathways to achieve meaningful and targeted adaptation responses for different types of recreational fishers.     

Vulnerability of different types of fishers to potential implementation of a management plan in a Marine Protected Area (MPA) in the Maldives

Understanding vulnerability of different types of fishers to the implications of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) is crucial to its long-term sustainability. It helps direct management decisions of the MPA in a way that negative impacts on specific fishers can be mitigated. This study explored the vulnerability within specific groups of fishers, namely, commercial, subsistence and recreational fishers in the context of the largest MPA in the Maldives – the South Ari Atoll Marine Protected Area (SAMPA). SAMPA is subject to a future management plan that is likely to bring changes in how resources can be accessed in the area. In order to explore the vulnerability of the fisher groups, their sensitivity to this change was measured through an exploratory factor analysis and a sensitivity index. It was found that commercial fishers were likely to be the most vulnerable group as the management plan could potentially threaten their livelihood. Subsistence fishers were found to be next, as changes in access to SAMPA will potentially influence how they obtain their dietary protein. Recreational fishers were also found to vulnerable due to the nature of their fishing operation. However, relative to other groups, their vulnerability was likely to be much lower. To ensure strategic measures are designed to alleviate these potential vulnerabilities, this study proposed collaborative stakeholder participation throughout the development process of SAMPA's management plan, and also as a platform to build much needed confidence in MPAs among fishers in the Maldives.     

Exploring stakeholder perceptions of marine management in Bermuda

Given competing objectives vying for space in the marine environment, the island of Bermuda may be an ideal candidate for comprehensive marine spatial planning (MSP). However, faced with other pressing issues, ocean management reform has not yet received significant traction from the government, a pattern seen in many locations. Spatial planning processes often struggle during the proposal, planning, or implementation phases due to stakeholder opposition and/or government wariness to change. Conflict among stakeholders about management reform has also proven to be a deterrent to MSP application in many locations. With these obstacles in mind, a detailed stakeholder survey was conducted in Bermuda to determine awareness, attitudes and perceptions regarding ocean health, threats to ocean environments, the effectiveness of current ocean management, and possible future changes to management. How perceptions vary for different types of stakeholders and how attitudes about specific concerns relate to attitudes about management changes were examined. Overall, the results indicate a high degree of support for spatial planning and ocean zoning and a high level of concordance even among stakeholder groups that are typically assumed to have conflicting agendas. However, attitudes were not entirely homogeneous, particularly when delving into details about specific management changes. For example, commercial fishers were generally less in favor, relative to other stakeholder groups, of increasing regulations on ocean uses with the notable exception of regulations for recreational fishing. Given the results of this survey, public support is likely to be high for government action focused on ocean management reform in Bermuda.     

Attitudes of Scottish fishers towards marine renewable energy

Development of the offshore renewable energy sector will have implications for the fishing industry by limiting access and navigation, and potential impacts (both positive and negative) upon commercially fished species. Fishers' attitudes and behaviour have been found to influence the success of fishery management measures, compliance with regulations, and Marine Protected Areas; suggesting they may also affect offshore renewable energy developments. A postal survey was conducted to investigate fishers’ attitudes towards offshore energy extraction and any influential factors in terms of fishing experience and practice, association membership, location, and knowledge of offshore renewable energy installations. The most important factor influencing fishers’ opinions was whether they knew of a nearby offshore development, followed by location (whether they operate from the mainland or the islands); and despite concerns regarding the perceived impacts and mitigation the majority of fishers held either neutral or positive attitudes towards offshore renewable energy extraction.     

Angler perceptions of California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) depredation and marine policy in Southern California

California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) off the coast of Southern California are known to damage both commercial and recreational fishing activities, causing decreases to fish catch and damage to gear. Their increasing population has intensified the potential for conflict between sea lions and anglers, likely requiring changes to current legislation. The recreational fishing community in Southern California is a valuable and largely underutilized source for information and potential solutions to management and legislative problems. This recreational fishing survey-based study conducted in 2013 utilized personal interviews, conducted in the field with recreational anglers and commercial passenger fishing vessel (CPFV) crews in Southern California, to gather data on: (a) the occurrence and impact of sea lion depredation on the local fishing, (b) angler awareness and opinions on current legislation, and (c) the conflict between fishing activities and conservation efforts. Results show that surveyed CPFV operators and private boaters had the most conflict with sea lions and perceive them as more of a problem than anglers on piers, jetties or kayaks. The conflict was also reportedly more prevalent in San Diego County compared to the other counties surveyed (Orange, Los Angeles and Ventura). Participating CPFV operators were overwhelmingly in support of a government culling program for sea lions, while recreational angler respondents did not feel that a control program was necessary. These CPFV operators reported more money lost, and were willing to pay more for an effective deterrent device. There was also a consensus among respondents that fish catch is declining, yet anglers were unsatisfied with the effectiveness of current legislation designed to increase fish stocks. These data will provide a better understanding of California sea lion depredation in Southern California and its effect on recreational anglers in order to aid future mitigation efforts. Additionally, these results provide stakeholder feedback on local marine protected areas and other fisheries management legislation, and build a foundation for future conservation and education programs.     

A decade of illegal fishing in Table Mountain National Park (2000–2009): trends in the illicit harvest of abalone Haliotis midae and West Coast rock lobster Jasus lalandii

Illegal fishing activities are reported to be on the increase in South Africa, including in its marine protected areas (MPAs). Research is presented on the nature and the scale of illegal fishing in Table Mountain National Park (TMNP) by analysing the numbers of abalone Haliotis midae and West Coast rock lobster Jasus lalandii confiscated from fishers operating in the park's marine protected area between 2000 and 2009. Data were collected from offence logbooks maintained by South African National Parks rangers and managers, the South African Police Services, and interviews with alleged or self-confessed illegal fishers. The research findings indicate that the annual numbers of illegally fished abalone and rock lobsters have increased significantly over time. Spatial analysis suggests that confiscations of abalone occur predominantly on the east coast of the park, whereas higher confiscations of illegally fished rock lobsters occur on the west coast. It is clear from this research that new and more efficient approaches will need to be designed and implemented to minimise illegal fishing in the TMNP MPA. Context-specific conservation targets that acknowledge and integrate social as well as developmental needs are required, and may be essential for limiting biodiversity loss in the longer term, which will ultimately ensure the success of fisheries management and conservation in TMNP.     

Fishers' perceptions as indicators of the performance of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

How users perceive the performance of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is fundamental for the social acceptance of these zones. Moreover, their perceptions may be relevant for monitoring the effects of MPAs on extractive activities. This study analyzes artisanal fishers' perceptions of the performance of a north-western Mediterranean coastal MPA, which encompasses two no-take zones (NTZs). Three viewpoints have been considered: the effect on the personal activity of fishers, the effect on the local fishery and the effect on the ecosystem. In order to test the hypothesis that biomass export (spillover) - which had previously been evidenced from the two NTZs - may influence fishers' perceptions of NTZ effects, fishers' perceptions were compared with both declared and observed fishing activity over an one-year period.The results show that negative perceptions of NTZs are either nil or are negligible. Most fishers are aware of the beneficial effects of NTZs on ecosystems and fisheries. However, they remain to be convinced of the beneficial effects of the NTZs on their own activity. For instance, the proximity of a NTZ appears never to be involved in the choice of a fishing spot. This partial lack of correspondence between scientific expectation and fishers' perceptions is discussed in the light of fishing habits in the zone adjacent to NTZs, and takes into account fishing grounds, targeted species and seniority (defined as the number of years the fisher has been fishing within the MPA). All three factors appear to influence fishers' perceptions. For example, having a positive perception about a NTZ and spending more time fishing in the adjacent zone are habits that can be associated with fishers with less seniority. Fishers' perceptions obviously indicate the social acceptance of the MPA and are an essential monitoring tool for MPA managers. However, perceptions cannot be seen as a substitute for scientific monitoring, as both approaches are clearly complementary.     

The bottom line: An investigation of the economic, cultural and social costs of industrial longline fishing in the Pacific and the benefits of sustainable use marine protected areas

Industrial longline fishing can be understood as a case study of the cultural, economic, environmental and social impacts of unsustainable fishing technology. While much attention has been attributed to the impact of industrial longlines on the marine ecosystem, little is known about the impact of longline fishing on local food security, employment, cultural belief systems and traditions, revenue generation from marine tourism and climate change. New data demonstrate that the contributions of Marine Protected Areas, marine tourism and recreational fishing to local coastal economies dwarf the contributions of longline fishing. When combined with the impact of overfishing on coastal fishing communities and fish consumers, policies promoting sustainable fisheries must be expanded to take these other factors into account along with issues of biodiversity.     

User fees as sustainable financing mechanisms for marine protected areas: An application to the Bonaire National Marine Park

Marine protected areas (MPAs) have proliferated globally in the past three decades. However, inadequate funding often prevents these management regimes from fulfilling their missions. Managers have become increasingly aware that successful protection of marine ecosystems is dependent not only upon an understanding of their biological and physical processes, but also their associated social and economic aspects. Unfortunately, economic values associated with MPAs and the natural resources they protect are rarely considered in decision-making and policy development. This study addresses this information gap by examining scuba divers’ willingness to pay for access to quality recreational sites in the Bonaire National Marine Park, Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles. The findings indicate that the US$10 annual diver user fee in effect at the time of the study could be increased substantially without a significant adverse effect on island tourism. Depending on question format, mean willingness to pay for annual access ranged from US$61 to US$134 (2002$). All model specifications support the conclusion that doubling the US$10 user fee would have virtually no impact on visitation rates. The increased revenue generated from this sustainable financing mechanism is more than sufficient to fund both current and enhanced marine park operations.     

Tasmanian marine protected areas: Attitudes and perceptions of wild capture fishers

In 1999 the Marine and Marine Industries Council was established by the Tasmanian (Australia) State Government and in 2001 a Tasmanian Marine Protected Area Strategy was launched. The aims of this paper are to: investigate the views, perceptions and attitudes of commercial fishers towards this Strategy and to identify the key issues that influence fisher support or opposition to marine protected areas (MPAs). Fifty-one structured interviews with license supervisors of commercial abalone, rock lobster and scalefish fishers were conducted. Fishers stated that they would conditionally support MPAs if they sustained or increased fish populations, supported research, allowed fishing in multiple use areas, and if multiple use areas contained small ‘no-take’ zones. Fishers were concerned about the ability of the government to provide adequate marine protected area monitoring and compliance and were critical of the public consultation process that accompanied the development of the Strategy. Concern was expressed regarding the potential negative impact of additional MPAs in terms of resource sustainability and the long-term economic viability of the fishery.     

The value of recreational fishing in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia: A pooled revealed preference and contingent behaviour model

Given the focus on protecting natural assets in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia, it is important for managers and policy makers to understand the value of recreational fishing in the area, and how changes in management may affect those recreational values. Travel cost methods were used to estimate the value of recreational fishing in the Capricorn Coast in Central Queensland using data from on-site surveys conducted at boat ramps. The study also uses contingent behaviour models to estimate the change in the value of recreational fishing as conditions vary. Results indicate that there are high values associated with recreational fishing activity along the Capricorn Coast, and that the demand for recreational fishing is inelastic and that values are relatively insensitive to changes in catch rates.     

Fisheries learning exchanges and sea turtle conservation: An effort between Mexico,Cuba and the U.S. to engage Cuban coastal communities in non-consumptive alternative behaviors

The purpose of this short communication is to describe the Third International Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation and Fisheries Exchange that took place from April 22–30, 2009 on Cuba’s Isla de la Juventud [Isle of Youth]. A group of 28 fishers, conservationists, marine scientists and fisheries managers from Cuba, Mexico and the U.S. gathered at Siguanea Bay off the island’s southwest coast. The goals of the exchange were to 1) provide a forum for sea turtle experts and fishing communities in Cuba, Mexico, and the U.S. to share experiences on conservation activities, 2) develop the scientific basis for future conservation in this highly biologically important region of Cuba, and 3) increase support by Cuban fishers for local sea turtle conservation efforts. During the exchange, participants met with local Cuban fishers about the challenges of conserving sea turtle populations while maintaining their fishing livelihoods, shared solutions developed by fishers to accomplish the same in Mexico, and undertook field and cultural activities. Key outcomes for the exchange include an improved understanding of sea turtle bycatch off the Isla de la Juventud, enhanced collaboration among the three nations in turtle conservation, and increased motivation by fishers to participate in sea turtle research and conservation. Additionally, as a direct result of this exchange, the community of Cocodrilo on the Isla de la Juventud has hosted annual sea turtle festivals that increase support for turtle conservation efforts by the local community.