The science-policy interface in fisheries management: Insights about the influence of organizational structure and culture on information pathways

Understanding how information flows between scientific and decision-making communities is essential for the creation of effective strategies to link scientific advice to management decisions. Interviews of scientists and managers in two inter-related fisheries management organizations – the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) and the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) – and direct observations at science and management meetings revealed important organizational characteristics that influence the production, communication, and use of scientific information in decision-making. Formal processes for communicating scientific advice to managers – DFO's Canadian Scientific Advisory Secretariat (CSAS) and NAFO's Fisheries Commission's Request for Advice – demonstrate the use of credible, relevant, and legitimate advice for operational decision-making for fisheries management. Such defined processes, in addition to governmental bureaucracy, departmentalization, and de-centralization, can limit communication as highlighted for Canada as a Contracting Party to NAFO. Administrative mechanisms can pose challenges to implementing ecosystem approaches to fisheries management (EAF) and to addressing the impacts of climate change. Emerging organizational structures and behaviours facilitate communication at the science-policy interface, within and between the organizations, thereby improving understanding of science and management needs and promoting trust relationships between scientists and managers. The involvement of multiple stakeholders in the information pathways addresses concerns about scientific uncertainty in assessment advice. A linear model of information flow typifies operational decision-making; however, collaborative models that incorporate different types of information, apart from fisheries science, are required to enable ecosystem-based management. The characteristics of the information pathways are particularly relevant as the organizations address their EAF mandates.     

Exploring concepts of fisheries ‘dependency’ and ‘community’ in Scotland

There is a growing argument that the biological priorities of Europe's Common Fisheries Policy – to halt the depletion of commercial fish stocks – are not a straightforward solution to the problems currently facing international fisheries management and that social objectives need to be incorporated into policy. However, existing notions of fisheries ‘dependency’ and ‘community’ remain poorly understood and leave decision-makers struggling to address social and cultural issues. By investigating further concepts of ‘dependency’, ‘community’ and some of the social issues facing Fisheries Dependent Areas in Scotland, this research explores the complex shape of coastal fishing communities and the conditions of dependency on fishing that coastal areas face. In this paper preliminary findings from an in-depth case study of Fraserburgh in the north east of Scotland are presented to explore the potential meaning and justification of social objectives in fisheries policy.     

Considering communities in fisheries management

Fisheries management in the United States, the European Union, and other parts of the globe, increasingly reflects a burgeoning realization that fisheries management policies affect not only fishermen, but also the broader communities in which fishermen work and reside. Understanding fishing communities, however, is not a straightforward task. Researchers draw upon many methodologies across diverse disciplines in the attempt to better understand the needs of fishing communities and the ways in which fisheries management programs affect these communities. This special issue draws together international research on fishing communities, highlighting the diverse relationships between people, places and their fish and fisheries. Rather than attempting to consolidate these complex, multifarious relationships into simple metrics, the papers presented in this issue illuminate community needs and wants from a variety of frameworks highlighting the importance of meaningfully understanding local contexts. These papers represent novel frameworks and case studies, adding depth of scholarly knowledge to a relatively understudied segment of fisheries management. Specifically, the goal of this issue is to advance the inclusion of community considerations in fisheries management processes. While approaching the topic of fishing communities from diverse perspectives, the papers in this special issue work together to provide a broad view of the concerns and conflicts existent in these communities. They highlight the need for management endeavors to be flexible, broad, and inclusive, providing potential tools and frameworks to aid in management projects.     

Management systems in the EU fisheries

In the different proposals about fishing resources management systems there is a trend to consider that some incompatibilities exist between forms of management (public intervention or co-management) and the use of instruments based in creating market of fishing rights. In this paper, we will try to leave behind this incompatibility by means of a new concept of management system, which distinguishes accurately the instrument from the institutional framework under which the former is applied. We can see the usefulness of our concept in the European Union fisheries management. Although there is a common policy for all Member States, the way some countries have implemented the Community Regulations has changed the institutional framework which determines the fishermen's activity. The results of our analysis become more outstanding since The Green Paper on the Future of the Common Fisheries Policy emphasises the need to share with the fishermen the drawing-up of the fisheries policy.     

Inshore fishing interests on the Atlantic coast: Their response to extended jurisdiction by Canada

Atlantic Canada has many small fishing communities where the patterns of fisheries are extremely variable and incomes are generally very low. Federal and provincial governments and fish processing corporations play a pervasive role in a complex set of conflicts and relationships between the different interest groups among the fishermen. This article demonstrates how inshore/nearshore fisheries developed, before and after extended jurisdiction, in relation to developing government policies. Patterns of behaviour so far registered raise questions about alternative consultative frameworks and tenure systems, and associated systems of representation.     

Relations between professional groups in the Atlantic and Mediterranean fishing enclaves of Andalusia (Spain): A personal networks approach with clustered graphs

This paper proposes a new network-based approach to analyse intergroup relations in fishing ports. The technique of clustered graphs is applied to the case of the Andalusian fishing ports to assess the balance between intra and inter-professional relationships. The patterns of sociability in Mediterranean and Atlantic fishing enclaves in the southern region of Spain were compared, examining their implications for participatory governance of marine resources. The personal networks of 53 fishermen, ship owners or skippers and key individuals of 18 Andalusian fisheries were analysed. The personal networks were compared in terms of fishing ground (Atlantic versus Mediterranean) and port type (by size and form of participation). The data of 45 individuals with whom each respondent usually interacts in the harbour was summarised in clustered graphs of intra-group and inter-group relationships between 8 professional roles in the harbour. Results show primarily that personal networks of Mediterranean ports are overall denser, in comparison with those of the Atlantic, which are more centralised and have a higher average betweenness. Secondly, in the Atlantic a clear difference of roles between ship owners and skippers is observed. A strong link between ship owners and the crew was found, and also between the ship owner and commercial roles in the Mediterranean. Small ports seem to be more apt for the artisanalisation of fisheries, as well as for the European Union’s Common Fisheries Policy.     

Does the relationship between fishermen and enforcers impact regulatory compliance?

The focus of US fisheries regulations has changed from expanding fishing effort to protecting resources for current and future use. Regulations, enforcement, and compliance have changed and grown over the last forty years. Members of both the enforcement and commercial trawl fishing communities speculate and complain about regulatory compliance, often from opposite perspectives. A small research project in Oregon studied the relationship between these communities and regulation compliance. Although a difference was noted in the relationships between the varied levels of enforcement and trawl fishermen, this did not constitute a shift in compliance; compliance remained high with participants from both communities reporting that the fishermen have “little choice but to follow the rules.” What varied was communication within and between these communities, and the amount of control participants’ felt they had in regulation development. A small glimpse into the relationships within and between these communities offers insights into the factors that may impact fisheries, regulation development and enforcement, and communication within and between these interdependent, occupational communities.     

The perceptions of fisheries management options by Spain's Atlantic fishermen

This paper analyses the perceptions of Spanish fishermen working in Atlantic fishing grounds on current fishery regulation measures and the possibility of introducing transferable rights as is established in the EC's latest proposal to reform the Common Fisheries Policy. A survey was conducted through face-to-face interviews and ordered logistic and multiple regression models to identify which characteristics influence fishermen's perceptions and attitudes. The results show that the fleet segments most in favour of implementing ITQs correspond to industrial fishing, while the smaller-scale fisheries (artisanal, gillnets, longline and coastal trawl) are more in favour of a system involving individual effort (fishing days or kW days), transferable or otherwise.     

Community based fishery management within the Menai Bay conservation area: A survey of the resource user

Management strategies are challenging to implement in Zanzibar's fisheries because the local people depend upon these resources for basic subsistence. This difficulty epitomizes the vital need for sustainable management: the more people need a fishery, the harder it is to limit fishing to allow regeneration. Comparing fisheries management strategies in two coastal villages in Unguja, the largest island of Zanzibar, Tanzania, this paper confirms the results of existing scholarship that communitybased strategies provide the most promising solutions to this challenge. Interviews with officials from the Department of Fisheries and Marine Resources, Village Fishermen Committees, and 51 fishermen in the villages of Kizimkazi Dimbani and Jambiani reveal the efficacy of strategies where local fishermen are centrally involved. The fishermen interviews reveal ignorance of existing fishing regulations and a lack of enforcement while fishermen at both sites noted that many illegal methods of fishing are still in use and expressed concern that such methods damage fish stocks. The Village Fishermen Committees, a recently implemented community-based initiative, are well attended by fishermen, and constitute a management strength that this paper concludes should be the foundation of future policy. To be successful, these committees need additional educational and financial resources.     

Selecting and assessing social objectives for Australian fisheries management

This paper details Australian research that developed tools to assist fisheries managers and government agencies in engaging with the social dimension of industry and community welfare in fisheries management. These tools are in the form of objectives and indicators. These highlight the social dimensions and the effects of management plans and policy implementation on fishing industries and associated communities, while also taking into account the primacy of ecological imperatives. The deployment of these objectives and indicators initially provides a benchmark and, over the life of a management plan, can subsequently be used to identify trends in effects on a variety of social and economic elements that may be objectives in the management of a fishery. It is acknowledged that the degree to which factors can be monitored will be dependent upon resources of management agencies, however these frameworks provide a method for effectively monitoring and measuring change in the social dimension of fisheries management.Essentially, the work discussed in this paper provides fisheries management with the means to both track and begin to understand the effects of government policy and management plans on the social dimension of the fishing industry and its associated communities. Such tools allow the consideration of these elements, within an evidence base, into policy arrangements, and consequently provide an invaluable contribution to the ability to address resilience and sustainability of fishing industries and associated communities.     

The Common Fisheries Policy: An enforcement problem

Marine populations in Europe are in decline due to the unsuccessful results of the Common Fisheries Policy. By combining data of scientific recommendations from ICES, TACs approved and reported landings with an age-structured model, the objectives of this paper are to investigate the level of compliance of the TAC regulation, and the level of enforcement and its economic impact on fishery resources. The results presented here suggest that while there does not exist a regular pattern between TAC proposal and TAC approved, there is a clear pattern between TAC approved and reported landings. As a consequence, there is a regular lack of enforcement at national fisheries authority level. The paper also presents results of the recovery plans for the Southern hake and the Atlantic cod fisheries as case studies to illustrate the level of enforcement based on collusion between national fisheries advisers and industry. The results from both cases studies analyzed here indicate that drastic solutions could generate positive results for the recovery of the stocks, but perhaps they are not always the best measure in fisheries management due to the high economic losses for fishermen and social effects on coastal communities in the short and medium term. Finally, this work demonstrates that if the recovery plans had been implemented, the net present profits for both fisheries would have increased over time.     

Regulating the access to fisheries: learning from European experiences

The pressure on aquatic renewable resources has rapidly increased over past decades as a result of both sustained high demand and technological innovation. The relative scarcity of fishing resources is not new, but it seems today to have become a generalised phenomena for most aquatic ecosystems from local to oceanic scales. Either motivated by the desire to regulate conflicts between groups of fishermen (gears, communities, etc.) or to improve efficiency by internalising part of free access externalities, fisheries management appears fundamentally to represent a process of access rule definition and implementation. Whatever is the instrument (output or input based, regulatory or economic, market oriented or not) it is the structure of access rights that is initially affected. There is nothing original in the fact that increasing relative scarcity calls for property right structure changes. It is also not surprising that in many cases, creating an access right structure provides an opportunity for a market expression of resource value. But in the case of fisheries resource appropriation is not as simple or easy as on land. Mobility and variability of the resource, diversity of fishing techniques interacting over stocks or areas, makes the case more difficult. Furthermore, management instruments are not as similar as the economic theory of management implies. Therefore, there is no straightforward answer. This is the reason why many different routes have been chosen to regulate world fisheries. In practice, efficiency and equity objectives are rarely successfully met. The European Union, with the Common Fisheries Policy and the various local or national management schemes, offers a fair range of such examples. Referring to European examples, the key issues in the debate over fisheries management are considered.     

Stakeholder objective preferences in Australian Commonwealth managed fisheries

Fisheries management is increasingly involving a wide range of stakeholders in the decision making process. However, in most fisheries, the set of management objectives are poorly defined, and the implicit importance placed on these objectives may vary considerably both between and within different stakeholder groups. This may lead to conflicts within management advisory groups where members from different stakeholder groups view potential management outcomes substantially differently, and inconsistencies in decision making when changes in stakeholder representation take place. In this paper, the institutional structure of fisheries management in Australia and the roles the different organisations play in shaping fisheries management plans are detailed. An explicit hierarchy of management objectives is developed in collaboration with key managers and policy makers. A large survey of stakeholders involved in Australian Commonwealth fisheries management was undertaken to determine stakeholder preferences relating to these objectives. The results highlight the differences in perspectives regarding the relative importance of the multiple objectives of fisheries management. While on average stakeholder preferences generally correspond with their expected preference set, the results also indicate that there is generally low coherence within stakeholder groups.     

Fishermen perception on resources management and aquaculture development in the Mecoacan estuary,Tabasco, Mexico

The southern Mexican states on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico produce approximately 85% of the total national oil production. The region has also attracted attention due its important economic influence in terms of fisheries, aquaculture and agriculture, and for its ecosystem diversity. The justification for more integrated approaches to aquaculture development is significant, as coastal aquaculture has brought economic and employment benefits to both national economies and coastal people. The aim of this study is the analysis of Mecoacan fishing communities’ perception on coastal resources management and to assess group awareness of the potential benefits and impacts of coastal aquaculture. Although aquaculture practices have been implemented as an alternative to fishing and to improve current levels of fisheries production, the results showed that conditions within Mecoacan fisheries have deteriorated significantly, as collective aggregation is not producing a positive outcome for the local communities. However, fishermen regarded the restructuring of fishing organisations as a means of integrating employment and income generation alternatives such as aquaculture practices. Therefore, a key to success will be to demonstrate the ability of good coastal management to promote capacity building within coastal communities in the context of a participatory intervention strategy through formal and informal organisations.     

Fisheries management at the tri-national border between Belize,Guatemala and Honduras

The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System has considerably changed after a series of natural disturbances, especially hurricanes and extreme coral bleaching, and is further impacted by anthropogenic threats. Located at a tri-national border between Belize, Guatemala and Honduras, the Sapodilla Cayes Range is specifically impacted by tourism, commercial fishing and other anthropogenic activities occurring in the three countries and by the fact that Belize only claims 3 nautical miles of Exclusive Economic Zone in the south pending a settlement to a border dispute with Guatemala. This area represents a source of income and food to several coastal communities and to Belize's economy. Key fisheries products harvested in the area by the three countries are the same but fisheries legislations and the number of fishermen are different, creating conflicts between fishermen. This paper summarizes the key problems that arise in southern Belizean fishing waters and the efforts made by the three countries to ensure the sustainability of the fishery.     

Small versus large-scale,multi-fleet fisheries: The case for economic,social and environmental access criteria in European fisheries

Overfishing is a major problem in global fisheries, plaguing 32% of stocks around the world and a massive 72% in the EU. Despite this, access to public fish resources in the EU and its member states are granted without any social or environmental conditions. Without these, the process of allocating quotas – essentially determining the future health of marine resources and the fishing industry – is blind to virtually all of the impacts of fisheries. Here, the United Kingdom's North Sea cod fishery is studied, comparing the social, environmental and economic impacts of trawlers and gillnets, the two major fishing gears targeting cod in this area. Comparisons are also made on a vessel-length basis to address recent debate concerning the benefits of small-scale fisheries. The results show that, for each tonne of cod landed in these fisheries, all trawlers have impacts that are more costly than the value of their landings. There are also vessel length-specific differences, with the largest trawlers the most destructive (−£1992/tonne and −£2.50/fish). Gillnets, on the other hand, generate positive value to society (+£865/tonne and +£2.16/fish). Despite these impacts, gillnets land only 1% as much cod as trawlers do. The results support the policy implementation of access criteria into the reform of the Common Fisheries Policy, to ensure fishermen generate positive outcomes for society and to provide incentives that align fishermen's interests with conservation objectives.     

Bluefin tuna fishery policy in Malta: The plight of artisanal fishermen caught in the capitalist net

The bluefin tuna fishery has undergone a major shift in Malta, moving from an open access artisanal nature to a privatized and industrialized activity dominated by the purse seining fleet and the BFT ranching industry. The shift has been exacerbated by the national implementation of an individual transferable quota system, which has enabled the concertation of quotas into fewer hands. The main objective of this article is to understand how privatization has evolved within the sector and the way the Maltese artisanal fishermen are experiencing the shift. This study takes an exploratory mixed-method approach to quantitatively and qualitatively understand how policy underpinnings interplay with the sustainability dimension of the small-scale fishing sector. Results show that the transition of the bluefin tuna fishery from artisanal to industrial has generated a legitimacy crisis over fishing rights, decreased profitability amongst most of the artisanal fleet, and led to a series of socio-ecological impacts on the artisanal fisheries system at large. It is concluded that the neo-liberal trajectories of industrialization have directly undermined the continued sustainability of artisanal fishing communities.     

Historical abundance of juvenile commercial fish in coastal habitats: Implications for fish habitat management in Canada

An important component of science-based fisheries policy is the provision of habitat adequate for population renewal. In Canada, the Fisheries Act pays little attention to managing fish habitat, and was further weakened by changes enacted in 2012. Specifically, determining the role of fish habitat in contributing to fisheries and fish stock recovery is challenging when many stocks have severely declined and no longer occupy former habitats. This study compared the abundance of juvenile fish in coastal vegetated habitats before and after collapse or decline of groundfish stocks in Atlantic Canada. This comparison was done by compiling past studies that surveyed juvenile Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and pollock (Pollachius virens) in vegetated habitats across three provinces. Two studies were repeated, and one that already had post-collapse data was analyzed to quantify long-term changes in juvenile abundance. In all three cases substantial reduction in juvenile abundance coincided with declines in adult stocks. However, juvenile fish still occur in coastal habitats and could aid in adult stock recovery. The current version of the Canadian Fisheries Act requires presence of an ongoing fishery to trigger habitat protection. This is problematic as low fish abundance may lead to lowered habitat protection and potentially habitat degradation, with less or lesser-quality habitat for fish in the future. Thus, recommendations are made to repeal the 2012 Fisheries Act changes and enhance current fish habitat legislation. Using a precautionary approach for coastal fish habitat management, particularly in valuing its potential for fish stock recovery, would strengthen Canadian fisheries management.     

Development of an integrated fisheries co-management framework for new and emerging commercial fisheries in the Canadian Beaufort Sea

The Canadian Beaufort Sea is one of the last places on Earth that has not experienced large-scale commercial fisheries. The aboriginal people of the western Canadian Arctic, the Inuvialuit, have become increasingly concerned about the potential effects of large-scale commercial operations on key subsistence species of fish and marine mammals and the marine ecosystem upon which they depend. A 1984 comprehensive land settlement agreement (treaty) between Canada and the Inuvialuit established a co-management regime for limited aspects of fish and marine mammal resource management, and gave the Inuvialuit rights to subsistence fisheries and existing commercial fisheries but no preference for new commercial fisheries. The Fisheries Joint Management Committee (the fisheries co-management body), the Canada Department of Fisheries and Oceans, the Inuvialuit Regional Corporation and the Inuvialuit Game Council have developed an integrated fisheries management framework agreement for the review and assessment of any proposed commercial fisheries within the Canadian Beaufort Sea. The agreement provides clarity and transparency for decision making and strengthens the protection of fish stocks. The development of the framework depended upon a history of cooperation between the parties and a bridging initiative by the Fisheries Joint Management Committee and an NGO that brought together the Inuvialuit and the government.     

Escape the lion cage: Social networks by catch zones of small-scale fisheries in the oil settlement of Lobitos (Peru)

Artisanal fishing communities are often in conflict with the interests of the oil extraction industry, industrial fishing fleets and tourism. This paper considers Lobitos, a fishing enclave in northern Peru, where the oldest oil settlement in Latin America was established. The primary focus is community organization and development of the fisheries. Using a mixed methods approach, intensive ethnographic observation and analysis of the social networks of the skippers of small-scale fishing vessels was conducted by in-depth interviews with 30 artisanal fishermen, together with a social network survey involving 43 boat captains in Lobitos. The results showed the mistrust and negative attitudes of fishermen towards oil companies and the industrial fishing fleet. However, they expressed positive expectations regarding tourism development, as well as favorable attitudes towards the diversification of fishing activity through tourist services. The networks of acquaintances, social support and exchange of ecological information allowed us to identify three different groups of fishermen according to preferential fishing zones. The skippers of vessels that prefer to fish in intermediate zones have a prominent role, both in terms of local leadership and through the connection with boats belonging to other bays near Lobitos. This subgroup acts as an intermediary in the networks a whole and has an integrated vision of the coastal ecosystem. Network measures and preferential fishing zones can be used as indicators to assess the degree of availability and preparation for the implementation of new uses in the fisheries sector associated with tourism and heritage.