Fishery livelihoods and (non-)compliance with fishery regulations—A case study in Ca Mau Province,Mekong Delta,Viet Nam

Fishery in Ca Mau, Viet Nam’s most southern province in the Mekong Delta, plays locally an important role for human nutrition and has great potentials for export earnings. The overexploitation of inshore fishing resources is a major problem in Viet Nam’s coastal areas along the Mekong Delta. As a result, the Catch per Unit of Effort of small-scale fishing enterprises has decreased, undermining the sustainability of livelihoods of fishing families. The paper focuses on livelihoods’ strategies and diversification in the context of overexploitation and exhaustion of near-shore resources in relation to fishery policies. The results show that overexploitation is unavoidable in near-shore waters because of the lack of enforcement of fishery regulations for offshore vessels and the limitation of alternative sources of income and opportunities for livelihood diversification for small-scale fishers. The present policies to prevent overexploitation need to be reconciled with livelihood sustainability and fishery management, resource conservation and socio-economic goals     

Improving livelihoods in fishing communities of West Sumatra: More than just boats and machines

Despite a raft of livelihood programs designed to help Indonesian small-scale fishers there are concerns that the needs of the poor are still not being addressed. This study examines this concern through a two-pronged approach. Firstly, through a broad-scale series of interviews with fishers, community leaders and government employees in 25 fishing villages in the province of West Sumatra to identify which sectors of the fishing industry the poor operate in and the types of livelihood initiatives targeted at helping them. Secondly, by using three case studies of livelihood development projects and identifying the social, economic and institutional lessons learned that point both to best and worst practice. Three groups of poor fishers were identified; a large group of non-boat owning “labourers”, a group of “small-scale boat owners” and a small group of “processors and sellers”. Empowerment programs by the Department for Fisheries between 2005 and 2009 emphasised improving physical capital through providing fishing gear, motorisation and processing equipment. These initiatives could potentially help small-boat owners but would not benefit non-boat owning labourers. The new livelihood improvement programme GPEMP had non-fishing alternative livelihoods that could help labourers, but still demonstrated an ongoing bias towards physical capital interventions. The three case studies demonstrated that aspects of leadership, trust, advocacy, administration, accountability and ongoing institutional support are key elements of empowering coastal communities towards livelihood improvement. Human and social capital components need prioritisation in future poverty alleviation policy and programs in Indonesia, particularly for the large marginalised group of labourers.     

Limits and barriers to adaptation to climate variability and change in Bangladeshi coastal fishing communities

Limits and barriers to adaptation restrict people’s ability to address the negative impacts of climate change or manage risks in a way that maximises their wellbeing. There is a lack of evidence of this on small-scale fishing communities in developing countries. This study identifies and characterises limits and barriers to adaptation of fishing activities to cyclones and examines interactions between them in two fishing communities in Bangladesh, using household questionnaires, oral history interviews, vulnerability matrices and focus group discussions. The limits include physical characteristics of climate and sea like higher frequency and duration of cyclones, and hidden sandbars. Barriers include technologically poor boats, inaccurate weather forecast, poor radio signal, lack of access to credit, low incomes, underestimation of cyclone occurrence, coercion of fishermen by the boat owners and captains, lack of education, skills and livelihood alternatives, unfavourable credit schemes, lack of enforcement of fishing regulations and maritime laws, and lack of access to fish markets. These local and wider scale factors interact in complex ways and constrain completion of fishing trips, coping with cyclones at sea, safe return of boats from sea, timely responses to cyclones and livelihood diversification. The findings indicate a need for further detailed research into the determinants and implications of such limits and barriers, in order to move towards an improved characterisation of adaptation and to identify most suitable means to overcome the limits and barriers.     

The role of subsistence fishing in the hybrid economy of an indigenous community

There is a paucity of information on subsistence reef fisheries of indigenous communities in Torres Strait, Australia, and its role within their hybrid economy. Bus route surveys and semi-structured interviews were conducted in 2005 and 2006 on three islands in Torres Strait to understand whether subsistence fishing remains important for the livelihoods of Torres Strait communities and whether patterns of fishing effort are driven by changes in their socio-economic structure. Strong interactions among private (commercial fishing and other wage-employment), public (social security payments from the State) and subsistence sectors were observed. When social security payments were spent, Islanders were more reliant on subsistence fishing. Also, higher levels of involvement in the private sector corresponded with a shift from shore to boat-based subsistence activities. Socio-economic factors, such as involvement in commercial fishing and social security payments, were identified as the main driving factors of subsistence fishing activities. Findings of the present study stress the importance of considering socio-economic factors explicitly in future fisheries assessments and management decisions concerning the sustainability of resources in Torres Strait.     

Fishermen perception on resources management and aquaculture development in the Mecoacan estuary,Tabasco, Mexico

The southern Mexican states on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico produce approximately 85% of the total national oil production. The region has also attracted attention due its important economic influence in terms of fisheries, aquaculture and agriculture, and for its ecosystem diversity. The justification for more integrated approaches to aquaculture development is significant, as coastal aquaculture has brought economic and employment benefits to both national economies and coastal people. The aim of this study is the analysis of Mecoacan fishing communities’ perception on coastal resources management and to assess group awareness of the potential benefits and impacts of coastal aquaculture. Although aquaculture practices have been implemented as an alternative to fishing and to improve current levels of fisheries production, the results showed that conditions within Mecoacan fisheries have deteriorated significantly, as collective aggregation is not producing a positive outcome for the local communities. However, fishermen regarded the restructuring of fishing organisations as a means of integrating employment and income generation alternatives such as aquaculture practices. Therefore, a key to success will be to demonstrate the ability of good coastal management to promote capacity building within coastal communities in the context of a participatory intervention strategy through formal and informal organisations.     

Migrant fishers of Pemba: Drivers,impacts and mediating factors

Most of the fishers of coastal East Africa particularly among the Bajuni, Kojani, Macua and Vezo ethnic communities have historically practiced migration. This study explores the strategies used by migrant fishers’ of Pemba in the Western Indian Ocean region. By adopting a modified sustainable livelihoods framework (SLF), the study uses in-depth interviews and questionnaires to explore the life histories of the fishers in migrant communities, their motivations to migrate, and their associated socioeconomic and ecological implications. Results point out to a complexity of factors contributing to migration including natural, to economic and social factors. Interaction of such factors is instrumental in shaping fisher migration as an activity into an important livelihood strategy. The study concludes that SLF provides holistic understanding of migration. However the incorporation of the ‘livelihood spaces’ extends this knowledge by integrating the spectrum of spatial aspects. This understanding is critical in the design of policies and interventions necessary to ensure resource sustainability and secure fishers livelihoods. This multi-method approach is critical in empirical study of fisher migration.     

Evaluating sustainability criteria for a marine protected area in Veracruz,Mexico

Marine protected areas are designed to protect natural resources within their limits. The National Park Veracruz Reef System was declared a protected area in 1992, however in the ensuing 17 years only limited measures have been taken to reduce harvesting within the area. This study was conducted as a base line to evaluate the sustainability of the park area in the present open access regime. Indicators were selected based upon sustainability attributes and criteria previously defined, patterned after a method used to evaluate sustainability in agricultural systems. To evaluate the selected indicators questionnaires were applied to the inhabitants of three fishing communities surrounding the park. Results show a precarious sustainability index for the reef system of 45.87%. We observed differences in the sustainability indices for the three communities when a classification and ordination analysis were applied. Also, applying this analysis to the indices, we found differences between social and economic criteria. The application of this kind of evaluation for the management of the area is discussed.     

Livelihood diversity and dynamism in Timor-Leste; insights for coastal resource governance and livelihood development

Coastal communities within small island developing states are typically highly dependent on fisheries and other natural resource-based livelihoods. However, specialisation as a ‘fisher’ is rare compared to diverse livelihoods that can be adapted as opportunities and challenges emerge. Understanding this dynamic “livelihood landscape” is important for improving governance and livelihood opportunities associated with natural resources. Using data from 495 households across 15 communities on Atauro Island, Timor-Leste, this study evaluates the importance of fisheries within a suite of livelihoods; the correlation of livelihoods structure with wellbeing; and the spatial and temporal variation of those livelihoods. Activities linked to primary production were nominated by 67% of households as their primary livelihood, 41% fished, and of those 54% considered fishing their primary livelihood. Almost all households (95%) owned livestock, and even respondents who considered themselves ‘fishers’ ranked livestock disease, rather than fisheries related concerns, as their most critical livelihood challenge. Engagement in fishing varied by location and time of year. Communities in more protected locales fished throughout the year, and had less diverse livelihoods. This study highlights that interventions focused on self-identified ‘fishers’ would only engage a fraction of the population that derive benefit from fisheries resources, would likely overlook the most prevalent challenges fishers face, and would focus on those with relatively high food security and income. Measures of wellbeing were better explained by geography and socio-cultural settings, rather than dominant income sources. The results emphasise the value of cross-sector development interventions informed by contextualised analysis of livelihoods and wellbeing outcomes.     

Benchmarking the first decade of post-apartheid fisheries reform in South Africa

The paper uses the three legislative criteria of resource sustainability, economic stability and social equity to measure the past decade of fisheries reform in South Africa. All three components of the reform process have been successful, although this judgement is subject to a number of important qualifications. First, the data available to measure success are limited. Second, both sustainability and stability are vulnerable to volatile factors external to the reform process (particularly variability in recruitment, climate change and exchange rate fluctuations) capable of derailing the process. Substantial alteration of the fishing industry by internal transformation of existing companies and the reallocation of access rights to new black entrants has led to a composition that closely reflects that of society as a whole and therefore meets the goal of equity. In the process, however, bona fide traditional fishers with a historical dependence on fishing have largely been denied legitimate access to the fisheries, and meeting their aspirations remains a challenge.     

Beyond fish as commodities: Understanding the socio-cultural role of inshore fisheries in England

Inshore fishing, by boats under 10 m, has a long tradition on the coasts of England but its role in the contemporary communities is not well understood, and increasingly policy makers have become focused on trying to find ways to improve its environmental, social and ecological sustainability. This paper reports on a research project that sought, through case studies on the English coast, to explore the socio-cultural role that inshore fishing plays and how policies could be developed to enhance its contributions. Inshore fishing was found to be highly valued not only for its importance in supporting livelihoods, but also in the creation of place identities tied to fishing as an occupation and the ecological opportunities for fishing that are available at the different localities. Findings are discussed in the context of harnessing these attributes for fostering sustainable fishing communities, underpinned by strengthening the ties between the catch and the locality.     

Conservation and the right to fish: International conservation NGOs and the implementation of the Voluntary Guidelines for securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries

The Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication (SSF-Guidelines) were agreed with extensive input from small-scale fishers themselves, and hold great promise for enhancing both small-scale fishers’ human rights and fisheries sustainability in a meaningful and context relevant manner. However, this promise will not be fulfilled without continued input from fishing communities as the SSF-Guidelines are implemented. This paper proposes that international conservation NGOs, with their extensive geographical and political networks, can act as a conduit for communication between small-scale fishing communities and other parties and thus catalyse implementation of the Guidelines. In order to do so, they will first need to demonstrate a genuine commitment to people-as-well-as-parks and the human rights based approach espoused in the SSF-Guidelines. This paper reviews current engagement of international conservation NGOs with human rights in fisheries; looks at their potential motivations for doing more; and identifies challenges in the way. It concludes with a proposal for how international conservation NGOs could play a critical part in catalysing the implementation of the SSF-Guidelines.     

Selecting and assessing social objectives for Australian fisheries management

This paper details Australian research that developed tools to assist fisheries managers and government agencies in engaging with the social dimension of industry and community welfare in fisheries management. These tools are in the form of objectives and indicators. These highlight the social dimensions and the effects of management plans and policy implementation on fishing industries and associated communities, while also taking into account the primacy of ecological imperatives. The deployment of these objectives and indicators initially provides a benchmark and, over the life of a management plan, can subsequently be used to identify trends in effects on a variety of social and economic elements that may be objectives in the management of a fishery. It is acknowledged that the degree to which factors can be monitored will be dependent upon resources of management agencies, however these frameworks provide a method for effectively monitoring and measuring change in the social dimension of fisheries management.Essentially, the work discussed in this paper provides fisheries management with the means to both track and begin to understand the effects of government policy and management plans on the social dimension of the fishing industry and its associated communities. Such tools allow the consideration of these elements, within an evidence base, into policy arrangements, and consequently provide an invaluable contribution to the ability to address resilience and sustainability of fishing industries and associated communities.     

Development policies,state interventions and struggles for livelihood rights in coastal communities in Kerala,India: A case study of the Cochin clam fishery

One of the major dilemmas of using rural commons for industrial uses in developing countries relates to the failure of the state to evolve consensus on allocating property rights to local communities and modern enterprises in a manner that sustains livelihoods and ecosystems. While traditional coastal communities enforce customary rights for fishing and mineral mining, the state sometimes reallocates traditional fishing territories to commercial mining to facilitate rapid industrialization. Communities oppose such transfers because of the negative impacts of commercial dredging on traditional fishing and ecosystems. Based on detailed field level surveys conducted in 2004, this paper describes how rural island communities along Cochin estuary expressed their opposition to the transfer of clam-mining rights to industries by democratic social mobilization. Counter moves were collectively organized by modern enterprises and trade unions which had the support of the state. However, major political parties retreated from conflict management, leaving the matter in a state of flux. This paper suggests that the state must recognize traditional livelihood rights of communities if it is to resolve conflicts and ensure the sustainable and equitable use of natural resources.     

Coping with disaster: Rehabilitating coastal livelihoods and communities

This paper examines lessons from past approaches to natural disasters, as well as early lessons from the post-2004 Asian tsunami rehabilitation, to draw out general principles for rehabilitating livelihoods in poor coastal communities. We contend that avoiding the mistakes of the past requires: (1) a framework for understanding the diversity of coastal people's livelihood strategies and the sources of their vulnerability, (2) a process for designing interventions that build on this understanding in order to strengthen and revitalize coastal communities, including a means of assessing and selecting the most promising livelihood options, and (3) a focus on the longer-term challenge of building future resilience and sustainability in the communities by addressing the root causes of vulnerability.     

Improving alternative livelihood interventions in marine protected areas: A case study in Tanzania

Alternative livelihood programmes are often used in multipleuse marine protected areas as incentives, compensation for lost opportunities, or as intervention strategies for poverty alleviation. Yet little is known about their impacts on biodiversity conservation and the well-being of the targeted communities. This study focuses primarily on alternative livelihood projects undertaken among selected groups of individuals, in six villages, located in the Mnazi Bay-Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park (MBREMP), Mtwara district, southern Tanzania. The aim was to investigate how the processes involved in the implementation of these new livelihood activities contributed to the expected outcomes of providing good returns to reduce community's dependency on the sea and improve conservation. Data were collected through focus group discussions with selected members of local community, who actively took part in the projects; key informant interviews with conservation personnel and district fisheries officials; questionnaire surveys of a random sample of project beneficiary households; and a review of pertinent documents. The overwhelming majority of survey respondents (90%) reported that the projects were allocated inappropriately. Interviews and focus groups further revealed that the purpose of alternative projects was not sufficiently clear and that many beneficiaries perceived that these projects were initiated simply to comply with the MBREMP regulations. Overall, 70% of survey respondents stated that the project activities could not compete with the income gained from fisheries. An analysis of documents further revealed that almost all projects began to flounder when funding from the MBREMP came to an end. This was because they were not supported beyond the pilot phase and, thereafter, insufficient revenue was generated to maintain running costs. Improved targeting and design of livelihood interventions will ensure that the projects achieve the goals of providing alternatives for fishers, increasing well-being and improving biodiversity conservation.     

Fishing rights and small communities: Alaska halibut IFQ transfer patterns

In the Alaska halibut individual fishing quota (IFQ) fishery, small remote fishing communities (SRFCs) have disproportionately lost fishing rights. Our analysis of quota market participation from 1995 to 1999 confirms that SRFC residents are more likely to sell than buy quota. Alaska Native heritage is another important predictor of quota market behavior. Residents of Alaska Native villages have an increased likelihood of selling quota. Loss of fisheries participation in small indigenous communities can be an unintended consequence of quota systems. Mitigation measures should take into account the social factors that can lead to such a redistribution of fishing rights in privatized access fisheries.     

Socio-economic vulnerability due to climate change: Deriving indicators for fishing communities in Mumbai

This paper assessed the socio-economic implications of climate change and vulnerability of fishing communities known as “Koli” living in Mumbai, India. The vulnerability indicators are derived from sustainable livelihood literature and use of multi-criteria analyses and are validated with expert opinions. A survey of two hundred fishermen from five fishing villages in Mumbai was conducted to collect data. The results demonstrate that vulnerability perpetuates due to physical and financial resource constraints among the fishing community. Fishermen from Madh and Worli villages are observed to be more vulnerable and less adaptive due to their inability to use efficient mechanized boats and advanced fishing implements, such as fish finders and GPS (Global Positioning System). The divergence in the vulnerability scores among fishing villages is attributed to the coping strategies, resource availability, knowledge and the benefit derived from the local government. Fishermen have been observing the negative impacts of climate change on their fishing livelihoods. Adaptation strategies to maximize fish catch are observed in such practices as targeting different species and fishing intensively for several days. However, these practices are leading to an imbalance in the common resource pool and biased resource sharing among different groups of fishermen.     

The economic sustainability of artisanal fisheries: the case of the trawl ban in the Gulf of Castellammare, NW Sicily

Small-scale fisheries and the communities they support are often given the protection of designated fishing zones from which non-artisanal vessels are excluded. This paper looks at one example of this approach, the trawl ban introduced in the Gulf of Castellammare (NW Sicily), focussing on the economic sustainability of the artisanal fishery currently operating within the protected area. The consequences of lifting the trawl ban and how far this would jeopardise the sustainability of the artisanal fishery are explored via an analysis of the financial viability of trammel net vessels under alternative assumptions concerning catch rates. The paper also investigates fishermen's attitudes towards the trawl ban and their predisposition either to remain in the fishery or to quit in the event of the ban being removed.     

Bluefin tuna fishery policy in Malta: The plight of artisanal fishermen caught in the capitalist net

The bluefin tuna fishery has undergone a major shift in Malta, moving from an open access artisanal nature to a privatized and industrialized activity dominated by the purse seining fleet and the BFT ranching industry. The shift has been exacerbated by the national implementation of an individual transferable quota system, which has enabled the concertation of quotas into fewer hands. The main objective of this article is to understand how privatization has evolved within the sector and the way the Maltese artisanal fishermen are experiencing the shift. This study takes an exploratory mixed-method approach to quantitatively and qualitatively understand how policy underpinnings interplay with the sustainability dimension of the small-scale fishing sector. Results show that the transition of the bluefin tuna fishery from artisanal to industrial has generated a legitimacy crisis over fishing rights, decreased profitability amongst most of the artisanal fleet, and led to a series of socio-ecological impacts on the artisanal fisheries system at large. It is concluded that the neo-liberal trajectories of industrialization have directly undermined the continued sustainability of artisanal fishing communities.     

Sport fisheries: Opportunities and challenges for diversifying coastal livelihoods in the Pacific

High population growth rates and poverty are likely to elevate the vulnerability of many coastal communities in the Pacific region to climate change. Alternative livelihood strategies which can generate income and simultaneously conserve fish stocks and their habitats are a priority. This paper investigates the feasibility of ‘sport fishing’ (recreational catch and release angling for particular species of predatory game fish) as such a strategy. The limited research of sport fisheries in developing countries is augmented with a review of community-based ecotourism, integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) and common property management literature to propose design principles. Five pre-requisite principles for the success of sport fishery enterprises are suggested. First, adequate local capacity must be available to manage a tourism business and facilities, supported by cross-scale co-management amongst stakeholders. Second, appropriate governance arrangements must be in place to ensure the equitable dispersal of benefits to all members of the local community, and conflict resolution. Third, resource-ownership boundaries and rights must be clearly delineated before the enterprise begins in order to minimise the potential for future conflict. Fourth, social, biodiversity and ecosystem service co-benefits should result from the enterprise. These should include improvements in income, health, education, food security, the status of the target and non-target species and their habitat and non-fishery ecosystem services. Fifth, monitoring and evaluation of these principles is required within an adaptive co-management framework which takes a social–ecological systems approach and includes all stakeholders in social learning and power-sharing. Through this, broader impacts of the enterprise may emerge which go beyond the standard assessment of ecotourism and ICDP success in financial or biodiversity terms. These principles now need to be tested by researching the experiences of case studies of sport fishing enterprises in the Pacific.