Geodetic Datum of Indonesian Maritime Boundaries: Status and Problems

Indonesia has maritime boundaries with 10 countries namely: Australia, Timor Leste, Papua New Guinea (PNG), Palau, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and India. Many treaties have been ratified concerning these boundaries. Unfortunately, many coordinates of boundary points mentioned in the treaties are not clear in relation to their geodetic datum. The uncertainty in geodetic datum of boundary points introduces complications and problems in spatial management of Indonesia's maritime boundaries, since it can displace the boundary lines from their assumed true location. This study investigates the possible original geodetic datums for the maritime boundaries between Indonesia and neighboring countries, in the case they are not explicitly stated in the treaties. The displacements of boundaries in WGS84 datum are generally in the order of a few hundred meters, i.e., about 200 to 400 m, depending on the assumed original geodetic datum being considered. These boundary displacements are spatially advantageous for Indonesia in some cases and also disadvantageous in others. The study will sum up with some conclusions and recommendations.     

Geodetic Datum of Indonesian Maritime Boundaries: Status and Problems

Indonesia has maritime boundaries with 10 countries namely: Australia, Timor Leste, Papua New Guinea (PNG), Palau, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and India. Many treaties have been ratified concerning these boundaries. Unfortunately, many coordinates of boundary points mentioned in the treaties are not clear in relation to their geodetic datum. The uncertainty in geodetic datum of boundary points introduces complications and problems in spatial management of Indonesia's maritime boundaries, since it can displace the boundary lines from their assumed true location. This study investigates the possible original geodetic datums for the maritime boundaries between Indonesia and neighboring countries, in the case they are not explicitly stated in the treaties. The displacements of boundaries in WGS84 datum are generally in the order of a few hundred meters, i.e., about 200 to 400 m, depending on the assumed original geodetic datum being considered. These boundary displacements are spatially advantageous for Indonesia in some cases and also disadvantageous in others. The study will sum up with some conclusions and recommendations.     

A climate-informed,ecosystem approach to fisheries management

This paper outlines the benefits of using the framework for an ecosystem approach to fisheries management (EAFM) for dealing with the inevitable yet unclear impacts of climate change and ocean acidification on coastal fisheries. With a focus on the Asia-Pacific region, it summarizes the projected biological and socio-economic effects of increased emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂) for coastal fisheries and illustrates how all the important dimensions of climate change and ocean acidification can be integrated into the steps involved in the EAFM planning process. The activities required to harness the full potential of an EAFM as an adaptation to climate change and ocean acidification are also described, including: provision of the necessary expertise to inform all stakeholders about the risks to fish habitats, fish stocks and catches due to climate change; promotion of trans-disciplinary collaboration; facilitating the participation of all key stakeholders; monitoring the wider fisheries system for climate impacts; and enhancing resources and capacity to implement an EAFM. By channeling some of the resources available to the Asia-Pacific region to adapt to climate change into an EAFM, developing countries will not only build resilience to the ecological and fisheries effects of climate change, they will also help address the habitat degradation and overfishing presently reducing the productivity of coastal fisheries.     

Securing ocean benefits for society in the face of climate change

Benefits humans rely on from the ocean – marine ecosystem services – are increasingly vulnerable under future climate. This paper reviews how three valued services have, and will continue to, shift under climate change: (1) capture fisheries, (2) food from aquaculture, and (3) protection from coastal hazards such as storms and sea-level rise. Climate adaptation planning is just beginning for fisheries, aquaculture production, and risk mitigation for coastal erosion and inundation. A few examples are highlighted, showing the promise of considering multiple ecosystem services in developing approaches to adapt to sea-level rise, ocean acidification, and rising sea temperatures.Ecosystem-based adaptation in fisheries and along coastlines and changes in aquaculture practices can improve resilience of species and habitats to future environmental challenges. Opportunities to use market incentives – such as compensation for services or nutrient trading schemes – are relatively untested in marine systems. Relocation of communities in response to rising sea levels illustrates the urgent need to manage human activities and investments in ecosystems to provide a sustainable flow of benefits in the face of future climate change.     

Maritime limits and boundaries

The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea is attempting to codify international law for the use of ocean space. While the process of negotiations continues and many political‐legal problems remain to be solved, certain issues appear to be at, or near, a stage of general agreement. A major element of the emerging consensus involves the “baseline,” the line from which all claims to zones of sovereignty or jurisdiction are measured. In addition, the Conference has generally accepted a breadth of 12 nautical miles for the sovereign territorial sea and 200 nautical miles for a coastal state zone of economic competence. An acceptable definition, in a legal sense, of the continental shelf seems to be provided. A major problem in the division of ocean space among States involves the delimitation of boundaries between adjacent States—those sharing a common land boundary—and opposite States—those situated so as to face each other across bodies of water. The issue remains divisive. The final treaty or convention, if successfully negotiated, will not, however, address technical issues. These important problems will have to be resolved by scientists and technicians concerned with the earth measurements in the post‐treaty era.     

Innocent passage —past and present

The regime of innocent passage was developed to accommodate conflicting State interests in the territorial sea. Security and, more recently, environmental interests of coastal States, are opposed to the interests of maritime States in minimizing interference with navigation. This article discusses the regime of innocent passage in international law through the analysis of relevant treaty rules, including recent developments at IMO, and state practice. Specific attention is given to passage by warships and to coastal state jurisdiction over pollution by vessels in general and over ships carrying hazardous cargoes in particular.     

The new institutional arrangements for fisheries management in Beibu Gulf

China and Vietnam have recently signed two bilateral agreements to deal with maritime issues in Beibu Gulf. One is the maritime boundary delimitation agreement, and the other the fisheries agreement. The two parties have also formulated a supplementary protocol to the latter agreement. All of them have entered into force on 30 June 2004. This article introduces the new arrangements for fisheries management initiated by the two countries, focusing especially on the Joint Fishery Committee established by the two parties, the contracting waters covered by the fisheries agreement, and the conservation and management measures for the Gulf's fisheries. The challenges likely confronted by China after this institutional change takes place are analyzed. A brief comparison is drawn among the three effectual fisheries agreements signed by China, respectively, with Japan, South Korea and Vietnam. Finally, as for the future of fisheries management in the Gulf some recommendations are made.     

Contemporary ocean and coastal management issues in Australia and New Zealand: an overview

The past decade has witnessed an unprecedented increase in the number of international treaties, conventions and agreements dealing with maritime issues and oceans governance. Most nations are attempting to cope with this expanding agenda at a time of fiscal constraint, competing environmental demands and the emergence of a new global strategic, political and economic order. However, similar issues do not always lead to similar outcomes. Australia and New Zealand share some common oceanic and coastal management problems, but variations in response arise from geographical differences, constitutional provisions, political style and administrative arrangements. This paper provides a brief overview of contemporary maritime issues and attempted solutions in both nations.     

Overview of West African fisheries under climate change: Impacts,vulnerabilities and adaptive responses of the artisanal and industrial sectors

Climate change affects ocean conditions, fish stocks and hence fisheries. In West Africa, climate change impacts on fisheries were projected to be mainly negative through multi-facet ways. However, analysis of adaptation responses of fishers to climate change impacts is scarce. This paper reviews the impacts on climate change on fisheries in West Africa and discusses the potential adaptation strategies adopted by both the artisanal and industrial fishing sectors. Overall, climate change and over-exploitation have altered species composition of fisheries catches in West Africa. The effect of ocean warming on fisheries is indicated by the increase in dominance of warmer water species in the landings, shown from an increase in Mean Temperature of Catch, in the region. Climate change induced changes in potential catch and species composition, which inherently have similar symptoms as over-exploitation, are expected to have repercussions on the economic and social performance of fisheries. Both artisanal and industrial sectors may adapt to these changes mainly through expansion of fishing ground that increases operation costs. Our results highlight that historical changes in target species are more common in industrial than artisanal fisheries. This result challenges the prevailing assumption that artisanal fisheries, given their limited movement capacity, would adapt to climate change by shifting target species and/or gear type.     

孟加拉湾海洋划界案初步研究

孟加拉湾划界案是国际海洋法法庭审理的第一起海洋划界案。法庭对盂加拉国与缅甸的领海、专属经济区及大陆架的划界纠纷进行了裁决。分析研究了该案中法庭对这种大陆架案件的管辖权、当事国双方对这一区域的权利主张以及法庭划界采用的法律与划界的方法(等距离/相关情况方法)。     

Striking the right balance? Applying the jurisprudence of international tribunals to coastal state innovations in international fisheries governance

While the coastal State has ‘sovereign rights’ with respect to the exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of the living resources of the exclusive economic zone, including the right to take the necessary enforcement measures, these rights are not as all-encompassing as they first appear. In practice, the geographic and substantive limitations on the coastal State's jurisdiction in the exclusive economic zone provide significant challenges to effective fisheries governance and enforcement. This paper considers the approaches that have been adopted – or could be adopted – by coastal States seeking to improve the reach and effectiveness of their jurisdiction over the living resources of the exclusive economic zone, by reference to the current state of jurisprudence from international courts and tribunals.     

System evaluation of sustainability in the Norwegian cod-fisheries

Overcapacity in the fishing fleets is considered as the most serious threat to sustainable fisheries. More effective fishing vessels and catching gear contribute to increased catch capacity. Increased catch capacity causes environmental problems such as overexploitation and calls for larger quotas. The problem of overcapacity indicates the need for a stronger integration of technological aspects into fisheries management. This article assesses the differences in sustainability between the Norwegian ocean and coastal fishing fleets in the cod fisheries, by using systems engineering methods. Attributes of sustainability in the Norwegian cod fishing fleets are investigated, as well as acceptance criteria and performance indicators. The results show that there are huge differences in the performance between the vessel groups, and that the results of an evaluation of sustainability in the fishing fleets are dependent on which attributes are explored. Thus, the discussion may contribute to a better decision basis and improved sustainability in fisheries management.     

全球变化与海岸海洋科学发展

研究海陆过渡带的表层系统作用过程、环境资源特性及发展变化规律,与人类生存发展关系密切。全球气候与海平面自然变化、全球性频繁的地震、火山构造活动研究及国际海洋权益之重新组合,促进海岸海洋科学的新发展。     

The regional approach to management of marine pollution in the South Pacific

Marine pollution does not recognise maritime boundaries. Consequently, protection of the marine environment from pollution must involve an international cooperative effort, with near neighbours, in particular, working together to protect coastal and ocean areas close to their political boundaries. This paper describes a regional approach adopted from 1988 to 1994 in the South Pacific Region to address marine pollution problems. Some 25 countries and territories lie within the region. Apart from Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea, the countries of the region consist basically of a large number of small islands separated by substantial stretches of ocean. Growing populations and demands for better living standards are exerting increasing pressures on coastal and marine resources, leading in some cases to significant marine pollution. The Region has limited financial and technical resources to address such problems and countries have therefore determined to assess and control them through a concerted regional approach. This paper reviews aspects of this effort, outlining the methods adopted, describing the outcomes and discussing the problems and lessons learned.     

Integrated coastal zone management in the Patos Lagoon estuary: perspectives in context of developing country

Located at the southern Brazilian coast, the Patos Lagoon estuary is bordered by the cities of São José do Norte and Rio Grande, which depend on a series of economic sectors associated with the nearby presence of the estuary and ocean, such as estuarine shrimp fisheries, small-scale ocean fisheries, tourism, port activities and associated industrial activities. Despite its environmental and socioeconomic importance, the Patos Lagoon estuary has suffered severe environmental disturbances mainly over the last three decades. This ongoing trend makes it a priority to develop an Integrated Coastal Management Plan for this area. Recent studies have demonstrated the environmental degradation of several coastal habitats, such as dunes, embayments and salt marshes. Most fisheries have experienced a marked decline, leading to a serious social crisis that has affected approximately 50,000 people directly or indirectly involved in the traditional activity. The growing poverty of small farmers and fishermen has placed increasing demands on local governments, which are struggling to manage conflicts between traditional and non-traditional sectors. This paper describes the objectives, criterions and expected results of an initiative for an ICZM program to be implemented in the estuary, as well as the main difficulties in a context of developing country.     

Policy,legal and institutional reforms for public–private partnerships needed to sustain large marine ecosystems of East Asia

The legacy of overfishing, destruction of coastal habitats, and accelerated pollution loading has dramatically reduced the biomass and diversity of marine waters in East Asia. Coasts can no longer support the numbers of people migrating to them, thus risking future economic benefits and social stability. Some countries are adopting needed reforms while, in others, less priority is given to reforms. National budgets for the environment, as well as international financial flows for environmental sustainability, remain disappointing. In the water sector alone, a global shortfall of US$100 billion annually will frustrate the achievement of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The paper argues that reforms are essential in the North and the South in order to reverse the gloomy outlook for East Asia, including global trade reforms and reduction of agricultural/fisheries subsidies in the North. Reforms to facilitate creation of public–private partnerships and their international support may be the only viable options for improving water service delivery, sewage/industrial effluent treatment, fisheries, and maritime transport to reduce impacts on coastal and marine waters to meet MDGs. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) has supported a series of projects since 1991, totaling US$657 million for East Asia, with an emphasis on practical application of integrated coastal management for the large marine ecosystems. Among reforms identified to mobilize the private sector are revolving funds, reinsurance facilities, sub-sovereign lending, risk mitigation, partnerships, and corporate responsibility. GEF advocated these reforms in the run-up to the World Summit on Sustainable Development and is supporting a new generation of projects for countries desiring to pursue them.     

入海河口河海分界的若干思考

河口是河海之间从陆地因素为主向海洋因素为主转化的过渡地区.关于入海河口的河海分界问题,国际上已有法律先例.在法律方面,相关部门对有关法律、法规的理解不同,对河海界限存在不同认识.在自然科学方面,存在着不同的专业强调不同的划界方法的问题;在管理方面,存在着根据各自认为的管理权限提出的河海界限问题.世界各国的海洋管理实践证明,河口属于海岸带综合管理的重要区域.研究河海划分的科学问题,目的是为了管理,但管理不仅依赖于自然科学,同样也依赖于社会科学.河口属于"国家所有",无论哪个政府部门都是代表国家行使管理权利.不管哪个部门,在河口区管理过程中,都必须根据有关法律法规,从严管理,为可持续发展服务.河口管理应该有利于生态系统的维护和保全,坚持以生态系统为基础的管理.     

海岸线修测中围海养殖区岸线界定问题分析

海岸线作为海洋与陆地的分界线,是海域管理的重要界限和基础地理数据,也是地图编绘、海洋调查和海岸带演变研究的重要内容,准确掌握其位置、长度等信息,是提高海域管理科学化水平的必不可少的环节。文章结合广东省海岸线修测实际工作中发现的问题,对围海养殖区海岸线界定方法进行探讨。针对养殖区已进行土地确权的情况进行深入分析,并提出：以自然属性为主要依据判定海岸线位置;承认土地权利人的权利在先;围海养殖区的海岸线统一以靠陆一侧的外边缘线进行界定等解决方案。期望可以为海岸线修测和海域管理提供有益的参考。     

On the measurement of socioeconomic benefits of integrated coastal management (ICM): Application to Xiamen,China

We develop a systematic approach for the measurement of overall socioeconomic benefits associated with an integrated coastal management (ICM) program. The analytical framework includes multiple marine industry sectors (e.g., ocean shipping and commercial fisheries) as well as environmental sectors (e.g., coastal erosion). The net benefit measure captures both economic and environmental effects. We apply our analytical model to Xiamen, China, using empirical data from 1992 to 2001. Results of the case study show that the implementation of ICM program in Xiamen has led to a significant increase (over 40%) in annual socioeconomic benefit from its marine sectors. Thus, the Xiamen ICM program has been effective in achieving sustainable development.     

Cooperatives,concessions, and co-management on the Pacific coast of Mexico

Ten fishery cooperatives of the Pacific coast of Mexico were studied to examine reasons for successful community-based management of the fishery commons. The cooperatives hold exclusive rights to ‘concession’ territories for major fisheries and are linked by geographic adjacency and through a federation. The case study underscores the role of factors such as smallness of scale; the productivity, visibility and legibility of the resources and fisheries involved; clarity of social and territorial boundaries; adjacency and linkages among territorial units; a strong sense of community. The cooperatives also made considerable investments in attaining high levels of knowledge, leadership, transparent and democratic decision-making, and “vigilance,” or enforcement of the rules and the running of the organization. The study also shows the workings of windows of opportunity and experience with environmental change in the development of strong and adaptive capacities for co-management between local organizations and government agencies. Although particular histories and larger legal, political, and cultural contexts matter, the Mexican case supports arguments for greater community-level engagement in “catch share” and territorial management throughout the Pacific.