SCUBA divers above the waterline: Using participatory mapping of coral reef conditions to inform reef management

Coral reefs provide important ecological services such as biodiversity, climate regulation, and cultural benefits through recreation and tourism. However, many of the world's reefs are declining, with Caribbean reefs suffering a significant decline in living corals over the past half century. This situation emphasizes the need to assess and monitor reef conditions using a variety of methods. In this study, a new method for assessing reef conditions to inform management using participatory mapping by coral reef “experts” in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) is described. Occupational SCUBA divers were recruited (n=87) to map coral reef conditions, uses, and threats (stressors) using an internet-based mapping website. The data reveal an uneven geographic distribution of reef conditions in the USVI with the most frequently mapped perceived healthy reef characteristics being: large amount of physical reef structure (n=872 markers); endangered or threatened species present (n=721); and large amount of live coral cover (n=615). The greatest perceived threats were: invasive species (n=606); water pollution (n=234); and unsustainable fishing (n=200). Areas of important reef characteristics, perceived threats to reefs, and perceived recovery potential were plotted to identify areas requiring critical management attention. The authors found that perceptions of healthy reef conditions outnumbered perceptions of reef threats for nine of the ten most familiar coral reefs; the most frequent activity type within the coral reefs was tourism diving; and for the most familiar coral reefs, the divers perceived a high recovery potential. Given the novelty of participatory mapping methods to assess coral reefs, the strengths and weaknesses of the method is evaluated. The authors further propose a management typology for categorizing reef areas to inform their future management. In the absence of primary data, or, as a supplement to underwater surveys and remotely-sensed data on reef condition, participatory mapping can provide a cost-effective means for assessing coral reef conditions while identifying place-specific reef locations requiring management attention.     

典型近岸退化珊瑚礁的成功修复案例——蜈支洲珊瑚覆盖率的恢复

在全球珊瑚礁生态系统面临退化威胁的情况下,珊瑚礁生态修复工作成为人类帮助珊瑚礁恢复健康的重要手段之一,并且在全球各个珊瑚礁区域都得到广泛应用.我国近岸珊瑚礁生态系统退化严重,本实验探讨利用珊瑚移植技术在三亚市蜈支洲岛典型的近岸珊瑚礁环境下恢复造礁石珊瑚的覆盖率,希望推动企业参与海洋生态保护并从中受益.在与当地旅游公司的...     

Coral reef education in schools of Quintana Roo, Mexico

Coral reefs are vital to the livelihood of coastal communities in Quintana Roo, México and the preservation of these ecosystems relies on the establishment of protected areas. Education should be one of the most important management tools in coral reef preservation. Surveys were made among primary and secondary school students of Quintana Roo to determine the level of education regarding coral reefs and their importance. Students had little awareness about reefs. Coverage of coral reef issues is insufficient in school curricula and information media. Many students will leave school and become users of the reef with little understanding of it and of the consequences of exploitation of the reef. Creation of marine parks has not increased education and public awareness. There is an immediate need to establish appropriate and continuously available educational programs in order to preserve coral reefs. Education should encourage codes of behavior and community support to management issues.     

珊瑚礁生态修复效果评价指标体系研究进展

近年来气候变化和人类活动导致全球范围内珊瑚礁大幅度退化,珊瑚礁生态系统面临严重威胁.开展珊瑚礁生态修复是恢复珊瑚礁生态系统最有效、最根本的措施之一,它不仅可以恢复珊瑚礁在生态系统中的功能,还可以提供相应的社会、文化、经济效益以及服务价值.近十几年来,我国在海南、西沙以及广西等海域开展了大量的珊瑚礁生态修复实践,但在评价...     

Missing the boat: Critical threats to coral reefs are neglected at global scale

Coral reefs have experienced a global decline due to overfishing, pollution, and warming oceans that are becoming increasingly acidic. To help halt and reverse this decline, interventions should be aimed at those threats reef experts and managers identify as most severe. The survey included responses from 170 managers, representing organizations from 50 countries and territories, and found that respondents generally agreed on the two major threats: overfishing and coastal development. However, resource allocation did not match this consensus on major threats. In particular, while overfishing receives much attention, coastal development and its attendant pollution are largely neglected and underfunded. These results call for a re-examination of how resources are allocated in coral reef conservation, with more attention given to aligning how money is spent with what are perceived to be the primary threats.     

珊瑚礁生态系统修复研究进展

健康的珊瑚礁生态系统具有造礁、护礁、固礁、防浪护岸、防止国土流失的功能。同时, 珊瑚礁生态系统生物多样性极高, 被称为海洋中的“热带雨林”。我国南海拥有200多个珊瑚岛、礁与沙洲, 是世界海洋珊瑚礁最丰富的区域之一。近年来, 由于全球气候变化和围填海等人类活动的影响, 珊瑚礁生态系统受到了不同程度的影响或破坏, 危及海洋生态与岛礁安全, 珊瑚礁生态系统的修复至关重要。本文对珊瑚礁生态系统的现状、修复方法及存在的问题进行了总结, 并在此基础上创新性地提出了基于系统的珊瑚礁多维生态系统修复模式并付诸实践, 以期提供更有效的珊瑚礁生态系统修复新方法。     

Dominant discourses,among fishers and middlemen,of the factors affecting coral reef fish distributions in Solomon Islands

Understanding resource stakeholders' perceptions of resource condition and management is vital to the formulation of efficacious management policy to sustain natural systems because agreement among stakeholders is likely to result in more effective outcomes. Understanding perceptions is particularly important in the context of coral reefs because threats are often diverse and management options are numerous, and therefore perceptions are likely to be diverse. This study identified the dominant discourses of reef fish decline, and increase, among 119 fishers and fish traders (herein middlemen) in Solomon Islands, and compared these discourses to current scientific knowledge. Discourses were then explored for dominant themes that might improve understanding of resource user perceptions. The findings suggest that certain fisher and middlemen discourses align with scientific understanding of the causal links between human activity and fish stock declines, and that many of the elicited management strategies are aligned with current scientific recommendations. A theme that emerged across the fisher and middlemen discourses of fish decline was a dichotomy in perception between fishing for economic affluence and fishing for subsistence and economic survival. A theme that emerged across discourses of fish increase was a dichotomy between support for command-and-control approaches and support for community-based approaches to management. Differences between some fisher and middlemen discourses were explained by the location in which interviews were conducted suggesting consensual perceptions achieved through local knowledge networks. Similarity between scientific understanding and local perceptions suggests that local resource users are aware of, and might support, fishery management strategies based on scientific evidence. Such strategies must consider factors such as location because resource user perceptions differ between locations and because many threats to the fishery and preferred management strategies are likely to be context specific.     

珊瑚礁监测技术发展现状及原位在线监测建设

随着沿海地区社会和经济活动不断增加,在人类活动和全球气候变化的双重压力下,全球珊瑚礁生态健康状况日益衰退。如何有效地监测珊瑚礁生态系统,使管理部门能够及时采取保护措施防止珊瑚礁生态系统的退化,已成为拥有珊瑚礁资源的国家亟需解决的环境问题。各主要国家均在大力发展珊瑚礁监测技术与装备。文中综述了国内外在珊瑚礁生态系统监测技术方面的研究现状,基于前人提出的原位在线监测技术,在南海某岛礁海域建设了珊瑚礁生态环境原位在线监测系统,并进行了1年多的业务化运行。在业务化运行期间,原位在线监测系统成功监测到了珊瑚礁的"白化-死亡-微藻附着-珊瑚骨骼腐烂-大型藻占领"这一退化过程,表明该监测系统能够实现珊瑚礁的长期、实时、连续监测。本文研究对于进一步认识珊瑚礁生态系统的时间变化特征及其影响机制均具有重要意义。     

Negotiating uncertainty: Framing attitudes,prioritizing issues,and finding consensus in the coral reef environment management “crisis”

Environmental problems are becoming increasingly unwieldy, particularly those which are highly debated because of their political and financial consequences and have been termed as in “crisis”. In coral reef environments, these considerations spill into decisions on mitigation of reef decline and attendant questions of territorial and resource-access rights. Historical foundations of reef science show that early applications of reef inquiries centered on environmental connection and inevitably led to establishing not only the baseline of reef ecosystems, but also contributed to the evolution of conservation crisis in this environment. This work applies Q-methodology towards determining attitudes, prioritizing statements and finding consensus regarding management issues that are tied to the science of coral reef environments and their conservation “crisis”. This work delineates the social construction of attitudes, perceptions, and foundations of coral conservation science by examining the scientifically-grounded statements that constitute conservation debates. Study participants were comprised of the coral reef science and conservation professional network. The Q-sample (n = 43) was structured around some central debates over the dilemmas and strategies of reef management and decline-mitigation, both recent and long-running. Four attitudes or viewpoints were isolated in terms of their preferred management models, geographic perspectives and the role scientific findings play within these core beliefs. These can be generally described as Community and Locally-centered Humanists, Scientific Idealists, Skeptical and Utilitarian Pragmatists, and Politically-oriented Positivists. Evaluating agreement about central issues showed a high degree of consensus regarding the relative importance of community input in the role of successful reef management while the highest degree of contention was seen in scalar issues such as human-environment feedback systems that are inherent in solving environmental crises.     

Mapping the global value and distribution of coral reef tourism

Global coral reef related tourism is one of the most significant examples of nature-based tourism from a single ecosystem. Coral reefs attract foreign and domestic visitors and generate revenues, including foreign exchange earnings, in over 100 countries and territories. Understanding the full value of coral reefs to tourism, and the spatial distribution of these values, provides an important incentive for sustainable reef management. In the current work, global data from multiple sources, including social media and crowd-sourced datasets, were used to estimate and map two distinct components of reef value. The first component is local “reef-adjacent” value, an overarching term used to capture a range of indirect benefits from coral reefs, including provision of sandy beaches, sheltered water, food, and attractive views. The second component is “on-reef” value, directly associated with in-water activities such diving and snorkelling. Tourism values were estimated as a proportion of the total visits and spending by coastal tourists within 30 km of reefs (excluding urban areas). Reef-adjacent values were set as a fixed proportion of 10% of this expenditure. On-reef values were based on the relative abundance of dive-shops and underwater photos in different countries and territories. Maps of value assigned to specific coral reef locations show considerable spatial variability across distances of just a few kilometres. Some 30% of the world's reefs are of value in the tourism sector, with a total value estimated at nearly US$36 billion, or over 9% of all coastal tourism value in the world's coral reef countries.     

Mapping the change of coral reefs using remote sensing and in situ measurements: a case study in Pangkajene and Kepulauan Regency,Spermonde Archipelago,Indonesia

As elsewhere in Indonesia, local inhabitants in the Pangkajene and Kepulauan (PANGKEP) Regency, Spermonde Archipelago area and along the south-west coast of Sulawesi traditionally regard the coral reefs as their livelihood source. Since human activities as well as natural disturbances pose major threats to the coral reefs, these livelihoods may also be at risk. Currently, no comprehensive information on the status and condition of coral reefs in this area is available for this resource management. We determined the changes of coral reef habitat over a period of 20 years from 1994 to 2014 using a satellite Landsat multi-temporal image substantiated with in situ measurement data collected in 2014. The spectral value of coral reefs was extracted from multi-temporal Landsat imagery data, while the diffuse attenuation coefficient of water was obtained by using statistical analysis between the ratio of live coral cover and the spectral value of the visible bands. By using the unsupervised classification integrated with the data ground truth, it is stated that there has been a decline in live coral cover over a period of 20 years from 7716 ha in 1994 to 4236 ha in 2014, with a degradation rate of 174 ha/year. Based on the results, the ratio of the coral cover in the coral reef transects varied from the average of 24% for live corals to 96% for coral rubbles, implying the degraded status of coral reefs in the study area.     

Marine protected areas—substantiating their worth

With the UK Marine Bill promoting the creation of a network of marine protected areas and similar commitments in other countries there is a need for tools to assist in their design and management. Although physical science often drives designation, the implementation of marine protected areas also encompasses political and socio-economic issues. This paper focuses on one tool in the armoury of decision-makers: choice experiments. It illustrates its application to the quantification of aspects of socio-economic value not readily incorporated into the evaluation of the costs and benefits of marine protected areas utilising cold-water deep coral reefs off the Republic of Ireland.     

南海珊瑚礁地貌模型研究

近200a前Darwin于1832-1836年间环球考察热带海洋珊瑚礁后,首次建立了珊瑚礁地貌模型并论述其形成机制,该模型总体形态呈全部或部分被上截了顶部的锥形,本文简称为"上截锥型"。此后历经几代学者的研究,都继承了他的珊瑚礁地貌模型。对南海珊瑚礁地貌模型的研究,近年有研究描绘为另外一种模型,该模型的特点是礁外坡为内凹形,礁体形态呈蘑菇状,本文称为"蘑菇型"。本文根据许多南海珊瑚礁地形实测资料和地貌学研究文献,确认南海珊瑚礁地貌模型应为上截锥型,"蘑菇型"珊瑚礁地貌模型并不符合珊瑚礁形成演化规律,在自然界内不存在。     

中国珊瑚礁资源状况及其药用研究调查 Ⅱ.资源衰退状况、保护与管理

对中国珊瑚礁资源衰退状况和原因进行了调查和分析.结果表明,中国南海珊瑚礁资源衰退状况严重,珊瑚礁破坏率高达 90%以上,其中,占全国珊瑚礁总面积98%的海南,80%～95%的珊瑚礁受到破坏.除自然因素外,对珊瑚礁资源的不当的、过度的开发利用,社会经济发展带来的海洋环境污染等人为因素,是珊瑚礁资源衰退的主要原因.建立南中国海珊瑚礁生态系统保护与管理国际合作机制,正确评估珊瑚礁的生态功能与价值,建立珊瑚礁自然保护区及监测网络系统,是中国珊瑚礁资源保护性开发利用的可行对策.     

Development trajectories and impacts on coral reef use in Lingayen Gulf,Philippines

Management interventions to reduce pressures on coral reefs often include attracting fishers to non-extractive non-fishery supplemental livelihoods. We look at the case of coral reefs in Lingayen Gulf, Philippines to understand the impacts of local (i.e., aquaculture and tourism), regional, and national development on the artisanal fisheries sector. Using household surveys and a coral reef interaction index (CRII), we obtained relative levels of dependency and impacts of fisheries, aquaculture, and tourism on coral reefs for livelihood. Results show that overall dependency on coral reefs remains high despite its decreasing quality. Socio-economic profiles reveal steep hurdles in shifting fishers to aquaculture. Both aquaculture and fisheries will continue to grow and eventually compete for space if left unmanaged further resulting in reduced reef quality. Shifts of fishers to tourism-based and other low-capital requirement mariculture (e.g., sea ranching) are more realistic than the expectation of absorbing fishers into current aquaculture businesses. Strengthening local coastal governance capacity to improve proactive responses for micro–macro development interactive synergy will also help reduce the impacts of development on reefs. Improving safety nets for coastal communities through skills enhancement and supplemental livelihood options that facilitate stewardship and reef recovery is an imperative. Transforming the lessons learned at village level actions to sustain municipal scale programs and institutional cooperation among stakeholders such as through marine protected area networks remain a challenge. Sharing forums and joint financing of coastal resource management remain to be realized through public and private partnerships and expansion of development for investments in social enterprises.     

Valuing recreational and conservation benefits of coral reefs—The case of Bolinao,Philippines

The recognition of recreational and conservation benefits of coral reefs globally provides a sound economic rationale for their management. The value of recreational and conservation benefits of coral reefs along the Lingayen Gulf, Bolinao, Philippines is evaluated using travel cost and contingent valuation methods, respectively. Empirical results generated consumer surplus valued at PhP10,463 (US$223) per person per annum or potential net annual revenues to the local economy worth PhP220.2 million (US$4.7 million) from an estimated 21,042 visitors to Bolinao in 2000. However, willingness to pay (WTP) values (in absolute terms and as a percentage of income) for the conservation of coral reefs at Bolinao that were elicited are low, particularly among domestic tourists. This implies that preservation of natural resources and the environment may not be an immediate priority among local travelers due to socio-economic considerations in developing countries, such as the Philippines and the public goods nature of the recreational services provided by coral reefs. These results have further implications for determining the values of coral reefs to support public investment for their conservation and management. The roles of advocacy, education, and awareness campaigns have been highlighted to create a larger WTP for the management of coral reefs.     

The economic contribution of the muck dive industry to tourism in Southeast Asia

Scuba diving tourism has the potential to be a sustainable source of income for developing countries. Around the world, tourists pay significant amounts of money to see coral reefs or iconic, large animals such as sharks and manta rays. Scuba diving tourism is broadening and becoming increasingly popular, a novel type of scuba diving which little is known about, is muck diving. Muck diving focuses on finding rare, cryptic species that are seldom seen on coral reefs. This study investigates the value of muck diving, its participant and employee demographics and potential threats to the industry. Results indicate that muck dive tourism is worth more than USD$ 150 million annually in Indonesia and the Philippines combined. It employs over 2200 people and attracts more than 100,000 divers per year. Divers participating in muck dive tourism are experienced, well-educated, have high incomes, and are willing to pay for the protection of species crucial to the industry. Overcrowding of dive sites, pollution and conflicts with fishermen are reported as potential threats to the industry, but limited knowledge on these impacts warrants further research. This study shows that muck dive tourism is a sustainable form of nature based tourism in developing countries, particularly in areas where little or no potential for traditional coral reef scuba diving exists.     

Evidence of a phase shift to Epizoanthus gabrieli Carlgreen, 1951 (Order Zoanthidea) and loss of coral cover on reefs in the Southwest Atlantic

There is at present a ‘coral reef crisis’; one of the more drastic consequences of this is a phase shift, in which reef‐building corals are replaced by non‐reef building benthos such as macroalgae and soft corals. Previous studies have principally focused on the shift to macroalgae. Our goal was to investigate whether the dominance of the zoanthid Epizoanthus gabrieli on some reefs of Todos os Santos Bay, Brazil, represented a non‐algal phase shift. In 2003, we identified a high cover of this species on two reefs (52% and 70%), but only in 2007 was it possible to confirm a reduction in coral cover. This dominance has persisted for over 9 years, characterizing a true phase shift. This loss of coral cover may be a result of anthropogenic disturbances within the bay; however, given the large number of human impacts, further studies are needed to identify specific causes of this shift. Although there are some reports of phase shift involving species pertaining to the Class Anthozoa, this is the first report of this phenomenon involving the order Zoanthidea.     

Selective coral mortality associated with outbreaks of Acanthaster planci L. in Bootless Bay, Papua New Guinea

Population outbreaks of crown-of-thorns sea star (Acanthaster planci L.) remain one of the most significant biological disturbances on tropical coral reefs although the increasing attention given to other threats has greatly limited recent progress in understanding the cause and consequences of this phenomenon. In September 2005 dramatic increases in the abundance of A. planci were observed on reefs within Bootless Bay, Central Province, Papua New Guinea, where few crown-of-thorns have previously been reported. Densities of A. planci peaked at 162 sea stars per hectare and caused extensive coral mortality. This outbreak killed upwards of 55% of live corals, reducing overall coral cover from 42.4% in 2005 down to just 19.1% in March 2006. Declines in coral cover were largely driven by widespread mortality of Acropora spp. which dominated reef assemblages prior to the outbreak. The extensive depletion of Acropora spp. greatly altered the coral composition as well as the physical structure of reef habitats. In the absence of any other major disturbances these coral communities are likely to quickly recover, but this outbreak highlights the ongoing contribution of A. planci to degradation of coral reef environments.     

基于高分辨率遥感的珊瑚礁地貌单元体系构建和分类方法—以8波段Worldview-2影像为例

珊瑚礁生态系统是全球初级生产力最高的生态系统之一, 在维持海洋生物多样性、防浪固滩、资源供给等方面发挥着巨大作用。珊瑚礁遥感地貌分类体系是珊瑚礁保护、管理及可持续发展的必要基础, 但目前还未有结合珊瑚覆盖度进行分类的体系。本文基于WorldView-2高分辨率遥感影像, 以中国南海西沙群岛七连屿北部赵述岛和西沙洲所在礁盘作为研究区, 结合珊瑚覆盖度、区域地貌成分和水动力条件等指标, 建立了既适用于遥感监测又与珊瑚生存状况相关联的珊瑚礁地貌单元分类体系。同时, 利用面向对象的支持向量机(Support Vector Machine, SVM)和随机森林(Random Forest, RF)分类方法进行珊瑚礁地貌单元的信息提取, 并对分类结果进行精度评价。结果表明, SVM和RF两种分类方法均能较好地提取出珊瑚礁地貌单元, 分类精度分别为87.59%和79.81%。针对分类过程中出现的错分、漏分问题, 结合珊瑚礁成因和分布规律对分类结果进行修正, 修正后分类提取的精度达到91.3%, Kappa系数为0.9041, 表明本文构建的珊瑚礁地貌单元分类体系在一定程度上能满足当前珊瑚岛礁信息提取的需要。