Wealth-based fisheries management and resource rent capture: An application to the Maldives marine fisheries

The economic value of marine fisheries can be measured by the resource rent that may potentially be earned, which represents a flow of real wealth for the community at large. For the island state of the Maldives we estimate that the resource rent that could be generated by the marine fisheries is in the order of $50 million per annum, constituting some 27% of the current value of landings. This rent is lost due to the de facto open-access nature of fishing. A wealth-based approach to fisheries management would seek to capture the rent, and the paper discusses the constraints and trade-offs that would be faced in applying this in the Maldivian context. We argue that such an approach is entirely consistent with the aim of the 7th National Development Plan which rightly emphasises the need to ensure the sustainability of marine resources for present and future generations.     

Subsidies to tuna fisheries in the Western Central Pacific Ocean

Tuna fisheries in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean are among the most valuable resources in the region. These fisheries, worth an estimated $4.1 billion each year, play a pivotal role in supporting incomes and development goals in the region. However, due to the twin, and potentially inter-related effects of harmful fishing practices such as the use of fish aggregating devices, overcapacity, and fisheries subsidies, many of these tuna fisheries are currently at risk of over-exploitation—putting the livelihoods of countless local fishers at risk. This study finds that government fisheries subsidies in the region represent 37% of the ex-vessel value of tuna fisheries in the region. Fuel subsidies are estimated at US$ 335 million and non-fuel subsidies are estimated at US$ 1.2 billion for the year 2009. Developed countries are responsible for more than half of the subsidies spent in the predominantly developing region, underlying the fact that the majority of tuna value extracted from the national waters of developing countries in the region benefit larger, developed countries. The total resource rent, or return to society, from tuna fisheries, once adjusted for subsidies is a net negative US$750 million in 2009. Fisheries subsidies are enabling foreign fleets to operate at sub-market rates, putting local fleets out of competition for their own fishery resources.     

A reporting compliance of national Fisheries Authority of Papua New Guinea

Through textual analysis, this paper takes into account documentary evidence of the Auditor-General׳s audit commentaries of the reporting compliance of the National Fisheries Authority of Papua New Guinea for the period 2006–2012. The results of the analysis show that the National Fisheries Authority׳s financial statements are late, unprepared or qualified. The study suggests ways the authority might improve its reporting compliance at relatively little cost, and how using national reporting compliance instruments may enhance national fisheries policy. The findings are of critical importance for fishing authority local managers, policy-makers and practitioners interested in providing compliant financial and operational reporting to meet the decision needs of its key stakeholders.     

The Norwegian system and the distribution of claims to redfeed

Identifying competing interests and potential claims to a new marine resource, the plankton redfeed, which may be central as a solution to diminishing supplies of marine oils world wide, is critical prior to a commercial harvest thereof. The competing interests are found to be between those Norwegian fisheries organization taking an encompassing view of fisheries interests and those wanting more focus on the well-being of the coastal fishermen. Working within a corporatist setting, it is found, that interest organizations in Norway are included comprehensively by the national government in the decision-making process, but that the main group having the most power is Norges Fiskarlag, which will draw the quota distribution of a future redfeed harvest off shore and away from the coastal fishermen.     

Conflicting goals in fisheries management—A study of the Norwegian cod fisheries

A multi-objective programming model has been applied to investigate conflicting goals of the Norwegian cod fisheries. The goals included in this article are economic rent and employment. Fisheries managers are confronted with the problem of how best to allocate the total allowable catch (TAC) of cod among eight vessel groups. Compromise solutions taking into account both objectives by giving them equal weights in the multi-objective programming model are calculated and discussed. This article is an extension of an earlier article in which the trade-off analysis was performed using data only for North Norway and one particular year. The present analysis includes the entire Norwegian cod fisheries and is carried out using time series data for 2003–2007, examining the annual variations of key economic and technological parameters of the cod fisheries. Based on the results from compromise programming, the article discusses management and policy implications of reallocation of the TAC by vessel groups.     

Marine protected areas in a welfare-based perspective

Assuming a broad set of fisheries management goals, this paper analyzes the implementation of a marine protected area (MPA) together with open access outside, applying a bioeconomic model that ensures unchanged growth post-MPA. Taking into account that conservation and restoration, food security, employment and social surplus are amongst the objectives that many managers include in fisheries management, it is found that this broader welfare economic approach to MPAs may well recommend them to a greater degree than espoused in the more common resource rent focused studies carried out to date. It is shown that for overfished stocks, an MPA may yield resource protection, maximize harvests and increase consumer and producer surplus, as well as give higher employment. This, however, is less apparent for moderately overfished as well as highly migratory stocks. Resource protection and enhancement implicitly improves ecosystem services.     

Fisheries rent creation and distribution—the imaginary case of Codland

This paper discusses actual and possible achievements and failures of Codland and examines it from the point of view of efficiency and in terms of distribution. Joint analysis of the two approaches is needed when contemplating fisheries management reforms, since such reforms may create both winners and losers. The analysis demonstrates how rent drain from fishing communities and countries may occur despite significant resource rent creation. The change in the Codland economy is illustrated and compared to that of actual countries and to resource economic theory. It is concluded that if distributional and equity objectives matter, other instruments than ITQs, such as conditional tradeable fish quotas and vessel licences, resource taxes, co-management, public ownership, auctions, leases, time limited rights, time and area regulations, territorial user rights (TURFs) and marine protected areas (MPAs), should also be used.     

The transition from the Soviet system to a market economy as a cause of instability in the Estonian coastal fisheries sector

This study analyzes how overall changes in political and economic life during the last decade have affected the Estonian coastal fishery of the Baltic Sea. At the beginning of the nineties, the opportunity to export fish to the European market emerged. Opening of this new market resulted in rapidly increasing pressure on fish stocks. Some of the most important coastal fishery resources were over-fished because of high export market demand coupled with insufficient resource management and ineffective control and enforcement mechanisms. The costs associated with fishery have grown much more than the first-buyer prices. Additionally, dynamic development of the Estonian economy has resulted in substantial increases in earnings in other economic sectors and therefore the relative wealth of fishermen has steadily declined. This has resulted in increasing social problems. In conclusion, countries in transition may encounter serious difficulties in the fisheries sector, arising from privatization and economic reforms, which may affect the fisheries even years after the establishment of new ruling principles.     

The challenge and the promise of indigenous peoples’ fishing rights—from dependency to agency

Access to and use of natural resources as a cornerstone in sustaining indigenous cultures has recently obtained considerable international attention. Access to marine resources has become a key issue for many aboriginal peoples struggling to move from dependency on the nation state to self-determining agency. This essay describes and compares recent developments respecting Eastern Canadian Mi’kmaq and North Norwegian Saami initiatives to achieve recognition and realization of their aboriginal entitlements. Core characteristics of the Canadian and Norwegian nation state responses to these initiatives are outlined and discussed, with an emphasis on the implications of aboriginal entitlements for the present ‘privilege allocation’ premise and paternalistic character of fisheries management systems. The essay concludes with a discussion of the potentials for an alliance between coastal zone non-indigenous peoples and indigenous peoples for the purpose of developing an alternative approach to fisheries management that will enhance local agency in and the ecological sustainability of fisheries livelihoods.     

Small-scale marine fisheries policy in Vietnam

Vietnam's marine fisheries are considered to be small scale and are concentrated in coastal near-shore waters. This has resulted in heavy pressure on near-shore fisheries resources. Near-shore fisheries are considered by fishers and the government to be over-exploited, causing hardship for many coastal communities. This paper reviews and analyzes changes in policy towards small-scale fisheries in Vietnam over the last two decades. The primary issues facing the small-scale fisheries in Vietnam are to restructure the near-shore fisheries and to address over-capacity. Recommended actions include improved fisheries statistics, resources for provincial fisheries staff, and a coordinated and integrated approach involving a mixed strategy of resource management; resource restoration; economic and community development; and new governance arrangements.     

The Magnuson-Stevens act (1976) and its reauthorizations: Failure or success for the implementation of fishery sustainability and management in the US?

The Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (1976), opened a new era of federal fishery management in the United States. It was enacted primarily to establish a system for conserving and managing fisheries in the new 200-mile (EEZ). The US assumed exclusive authority for managing all fisheries within the EEZ, except for highly migratory species such as tunas and billfishes. Within the framework of the Act, eight Regional Fishery Management Councils (Regional Councils) were created, which are responsible for preparing Fisheries Management Plans (FMPs) in federal waters under their jurisdiction. Each FMP must meet a series of National Standards (NSs) for conservation and management. The Act was reauthorized in 1996 with the passage of the Sustainable Fisheries Act (SFA), which aimed at fine tuning the fishery regulatory apparatus that was established under the original Act. This "fine tuning" involved increased attention to biological concerns, and removal of ambiguities within it. The Act was reauthorized again in 2007, mainly to provide for more clear directives and regulations to end overfishing. After more than thirty years since the Act was passed into law, the debate among conservationists, commercial and recreational fishery representatives, and politicians on the effectiveness of the Act in achieving its purported goals it still continues. Is the Act delivering on its promises? Do NSs reflect the most important priorities for the US fishery resources, conservation and sustainable exploitation? Do the Regional Councils represent all parties that should be involved in the fisheries resources management? The aim of this paper is to provide a critical analysis to answer these questions. This paper begins with a review of the Act and its background, followed by discussion and analysis of the Act's benefits and flaws. Finally, suggestions for the implementation of its structure and future directions in fishery management strategies are made.     

Fish on the range:: the perils of crossing conceptual boundaries in natural resource policy

This paper examines the recurring theme that fisheries management ought to emulate the institutional arrangements governing other natural resources, such as public rangelands. Overly facile comparisons between fisheries and range have been based on a misguided vision of range policy and an obsession with the structure of property rights. The result has been a condition of “structural narcosis” that obscures obvious but important differences between range and fisheries and obstructs more productive and sophisticated attempts at comparative inquiry. This paper provides a more detailed contrast between past range and current fisheries policy in the United States, in pursuit of more realistic lessons for policy makers. Range management, the paper concludes, is evolving in directions that are instructive for fisheries, but the crossing of conceptual boundaries between these two resources must be undertaken with care and greater attention to detail.     

War,fish, and foreign fleets: The marine fisheries catches of Sierra Leone 1950–2015

In countries like Sierra Leone, where stock assessments based on fisheries-independent data and complex population models are financially and technically challenging, catch statistics may be used to infer fluctuations in fish stocks where more precise data are not available. However, FAO FishStat, the most widely-used time-series data on global fisheries ‘catches’ (actually ‘landings’), does not account for Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) catches and relies on statistics provided by the national agencies of each member country. As such, reported FishStat data is vulnerable to changes in monitoring capacity, governmental transitions, and budgetary constraints, and may substantially underestimate the measure of extracted marine resources. In this report, Sierra Leone's total catches by all marine fishing sectors were estimated for the period 1950–2015, using a catch reconstruction approach incorporating national data, expert knowledge, and both peer-reviewed and grey literature. Results demonstrate that a substantial amount of marine resource exploitation is not represented in official statistics, and reconstructed catches represent more than 2.25 times the recorded FAO Fishstat values. Notably, foreign fleets take the vast majority of industrial catch in Sierra Leone's EEZ, indicating that most of the resource catch and revenue is diverted to foreign companies and export markets. While foreign actors dominate the industrial sector, the small-scale sector represents the majority of domestic catch. Illegal fishing is also a substantial challenge in Sierra Leone, and extracts a large amount of the country's marine fish resources. Reconstructing catches in Sierra Leone also highlights the impacts of various historical events such as Sierra Leone's civil war and post-war reconstruction on the development of the fisheries sector. The results found in the reconstruction present a large discrepancy from FishStat data, with considerable implications for assessment of stocks and management of Sierra Leone's marine resources.     

The effectiveness of community-based governance of small-scale fisheries,Ngazidja island,Comoros

Conventional top-down, exogenous approaches to fisheries management have been ineffective in more traditional and small-scale fisheries. Yet, there remains little understanding of the effectiveness of alternative approaches. This case-study of small-scale fisheries in the Comoros examines how effective local fishing associations are at managing common fisheries resources, and provides some understanding of the underlying characteristics of effectiveness. Emphasis is placed on assessing governance effectiveness according to characteristics appropriate within the local context, and on suggesting ways to enhance local institutional strength and capacity to manage resources. Qualitative methods were used to collect data on local governance structures and management tools, fishers’ knowledge and beliefs, and perceptions of the status of fisheries resources in four major fishing villages on the island of Ngazidja. Results show that fisheries management in the Comoros is informally shared between the State fisheries department, a national fishing syndicate, and village fishing associations. Village fishing associations play an active role in fisheries management by collectively designing, monitoring, and enforcing local regulations. Compliance with local regulations is high, primarily due to participatory decision-making, community-monitoring, and strong feelings of solidarity among fishers. Perceptions of the benefits of these regulations are also high. This suggests that by working within these pre-established informal management systems, collective governance of common pool resources can be achieved within communities, and feelings of empowerment and shared responsibility among resource users can lead to effective management practices.     

The economic importance of the Icelandic fisheries cluster—Understanding the role of fisheries in a small economy

Expansion and development of the fisheries sector was the driving force behind Iceland’s economic transformation during the 20th century. However, the role of fisheries in national and regional economies is neither well documented nor understood. National accounts do not fully reflect the significant part played by the fisheries as they do not take into consideration the various ways economic activity in the fisheries sector affects other branches of the economy. The fisheries sector, which includes fishing and fish processing, has been established as a base industry within the Icelandic economy. Using data collected during 2010 and 2011 and cluster analysis techniques, this paper seeks to establish the economic importance of the fishing industry in Iceland. As a base industry, this paper finds that a wide range of companies have gradually developed to service the sector and through these interlinkages, the fisheries sector and its related operations can be viewed as an industry cluster.     

Putting the seafood in sustainable food systems

Increasing attention by consumers to the social and environmental dimensions of the food they eat has generated many different responses, including certification programs, watch lists and local/slow food movements. This article examines the more recent entry of seafood into these consumer social movements. Although a concern with the family farm—as well as tendency to equate national security with food security—has long connected terrestrial food production with other cultural concerns, fisheries have tended to be regarded more as natural resources. Considering seafood as part of the “food system” would enhance the management of fisheries, while the long engagement in fisheries with co- and adaptive management and the politics of knowledge would enrich the debate in the agri-foods literature. The article also offers suggestions on how fisheries management could better govern for sustainable food systems, and provides further ideas about food, sustainability and governance.     

Fishing for the future: An overview of challenges and opportunities

This paper surveys the current state and major trends in global fisheries; the environmental and social dimensions of fisheries; and explains how the international community has tried to meet the policy challenges associated with oceans and fisheries. The ocean and the freshwater ecosystems of the world make significant contributions to people's well-being via the many vital social and environmental services they provide (for example, food and nutrition, employment and incomes, carbon cycling and sequestration). The impact that the increase in fishing since the 1950s has had on wild fish stocks, and the significant increase in aquaculture production in the 20th century, have resulted in severe environmental impacts. This has significant effects on marine ecosystems and the health of oceans. The erosion of the resource undermines communities' long-term interests, including food security, employment, and income. Attempts by the global community to address challenges of sustainable production by improving the governance and management of fisheries resources range from national management of fisheries resources, to regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs) for international fisheries stocks. These attempts have not always successfully met the challenge of balancing current and future use of fisheries.     

Towards a typology of interactions between small-scale fisheries and global seafood trade

Fish and fish-related products are among the most highly traded commodities globally and the proportion of globally harvested fish that is internationally traded has steadily risen over time. Views on the benefits of international seafood trade diverge, partly as a result from adopting either an aggregate national focus or a focus on local market actors. However, both views generally assume that the trade in question is characterized by export of fisheries resources to international markets. This is potentially misleading as empirical evidence suggests that import of seafood can also have impacts on local SSF dynamics. A systematic analysis of the different ways in which local production systems connect to international seafood markets can therefore help shed more light on why small-scale fisheries exhibit such differences in outcomes as they engage in an increasingly global seafood trade. This paper conducts a synthesis across 24 cases from around the world and develops a typology of small-scale fisheries and how they connect to and interact with international seafood trade. The analysis is based on key features drawn from trade theory regarding how trade interacts with local production. The implications of the findings for social and ecological sustainability of small-scale fisheries are discussed with the aim of identifying further research topics which deserve attention to better inform trade policy for more sustainable fisheries and more just wealth distribution from their trade.     

Diversifying fisheries into tourism in Taiwan: Experiences and prospects

Tourism is accepted as natural part of the socioeconomic fabric and is juxtaposed with fisheries in some coastal areas in Taiwan. This is the result of governmental policy on diversifying fisheries into tourism. This paper examines how this policy plays out in the context of a declining offshore fisheries industry and a rising demand for marine leisure opportunities. The paper utilizes documentary analysis and personal interviews with relevant stakeholders. It shows diversifying fisheries into tourism is the right direction for progress on the government agenda. However, conflicts between resource users, lack of community capacity, fisher’s business skills, and human resources in local governments, and low market penetration combined together to militate against the success of the policy. It argues for the need to establish negotiation mechanisms, build community capacity, encourage education and training programs, and introduce new coastal economic activities for future improvement. The paper finally suggests a holistic approach with integrated coastal management practices for the fisheries diversification development.     

Fisheries and failing states: The case of Sierra Leone

Marine fisheries play an important role in the economy of Sierra Leone, supporting livelihoods and contributing significantly to food security. This paper looks in detail at how the performance of fisheries was impacted by the ten year civil war, an event which contributed to the country's reputation for being a “failed state”. The paper focuses mainly on the artisanal fisheries sector, which employs the majority of the country's coastal population, and demonstrates how the conflict caused major social dislocation to fishing communities as well as reducing the productive capacity of the fleet. The paper concludes with a discussion of the policy challenges now facing Sierra Leone, particularly the prevention of resource looting through illegal fishing of the offshore stocks and the development of strategies to enable the potential wealth of these fisheries to be captured.