Exploring concepts of fisheries ‘dependency’ and ‘community’ in Scotland

There is a growing argument that the biological priorities of Europe's Common Fisheries Policy – to halt the depletion of commercial fish stocks – are not a straightforward solution to the problems currently facing international fisheries management and that social objectives need to be incorporated into policy. However, existing notions of fisheries ‘dependency’ and ‘community’ remain poorly understood and leave decision-makers struggling to address social and cultural issues. By investigating further concepts of ‘dependency’, ‘community’ and some of the social issues facing Fisheries Dependent Areas in Scotland, this research explores the complex shape of coastal fishing communities and the conditions of dependency on fishing that coastal areas face. In this paper preliminary findings from an in-depth case study of Fraserburgh in the north east of Scotland are presented to explore the potential meaning and justification of social objectives in fisheries policy.     

‘All in’: Snow crab,capitalization, and the future of small-scale fisheries in Newfoundland

The collapse of cod stocks off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador in the early 1990s has been widely identified as one of the greatest human-ecological catastrophes of the 20th century. In the aftermath of the crisis, heated debates took place about how the fishery should be structured in the future in order to facilitate the recovery of stocks and sustain coastal livelihoods. In the end, the trade union representing fishers and fish processing plant workers in the province proved successful in resisting pressures from fish processing companies to introduce full-scale privatization. It was also able to expand access to the lucrative snow crab fishery, thereby improving incomes for most remaining independent fishers in the province. Nevertheless, this paper argues that policy changes made shortly after cod moratorium, in combination with changing environmental, demographic, and market conditions, have created a situation which now threatens to undermine the capacity for small-scale fishing enterprises to remain independently owned and operated into the future.     

Exploitation and conservation of coastal and marine fisheries in Bangladesh: Do the fishery laws matter?

The present study analysed the major features of two important acts and an ordinance in Bangladesh that govern coastal and marine fishery exploitation and conservation. The problems with the implementation of these regulations were identified, and the level of compliance among fishers and reasons for their noncompliance were assessed. Based on two case studies on coastal and marine ecosystems, the findings revealed that the level of noncompliance is highly prevalent, particularly in hilsa sanctuaries in the Meghna River estuary. The study identified coastal poverty, the inadequate and improper distribution of incentives, insufficient logistic support, limited alternative occupations, political interference and a lack of awareness regarding fishery regulations as the major limitations in the implementation. The drawbacks of proper implementation and the noncompliance of fishery regulations lead to fishery degradation, directly affect the sustainability of the coastal and marine ecosystem of Bangladesh and may be barriers to achieving Goal 14 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Establishing a co-management mechanism for sanctuary management, creating economic opportunities outside of fishery sectors, declaring more protected areas in the coastal and marine ecosystem, enhancing logistic support to the enforcing agencies and building awareness are critical to improving the compliance level among fishers. Finally, the study submits that understanding the fishers’ reasons for compliance and noncompliance of the regulations is important for devising fishery policies through the consultation and engagement of stakeholders at all levels.     

Small-scale fishers’ adaptations to change: The role of formal and informal credit in Paraty,Brazil

Small-scale fishers in coastal areas of Brazil face numerous challenges, including marginalization by large-scale industrial operations, poor market access, lack of working capital, and pressure to diversify their livelihood base. From the perspective of adaptive capacity, this investigation was carried out in three communities in the municipality of Paraty (Rio de Janeiro State), and sought to determine the main challenges facing local fishers, and fishers’ current adaptive and transformative actions against these challenges. Findings revealed that the majority of fishers (55%) own mid-size diesel boats (6–9 m) and face constant pressure to scale-up and diversify operations to take advantage of the growing tourism sector. Such expansion requires financial capital. However, due to fear of losing assets, inability to arrange a co-signer, and lack of adequate collateral, many fishers are reluctant to obtain credit from government-sponsored programs and seek credit elsewhere. Fishers with larger boats are increasingly opting for tourism-related activities through informal credit arrangements. However, of the smaller-scale fisher respondents some 27% have opted to downsize their fishing operations through intrasectoral adjustments. These actions reflect a general trend of aversion to financial liability and vulnerability by way of flexibility, dynamism, and diversification. It is recommended that access to credit should be made easier for small-scale fishers to provide more options to diversify their livelihood base but without exerting additional fishing pressure on already overfished stocks.     

User participation and institutional change in fisheries management: a viable alternative to the failures of ‘top-down’ driven control?

This article investigates the role and value of user participation in fisheries management. New empirical data on changes in the institutional structure of fisheries management systems is presented by examining the management structure of two Danish fisheries. The analysis focuses on how user participation functions are institutionalized as co-management between administrators and user groups. General lessons for successful user participation in management are deduced. The paper concludes that co-management is able to overcome some of the fundamental problems related to modern fisheries management and that co-management can work as an active and effective management tool rather than as an impediment to efficient management.     

Small-scale, high-precision and high-accuracy determination of Poisson’s ratios in cohesive marine sediments

Poisson’s ratio (static) appears as a parameter in models of soft-sediment geomechanical processes such as gas bubble formation and bioturbation, and in a number of practical applications, including acoustic imaging, but is rarely measured in soft near-surface (upper 20 cm) marine sediments. A new uniaxial apparatus was developed to assess Poisson’s ratios of cylindrical samples of soft cohesive sediments under finite-strain, unconfined, undrained conditions. No constraining membrane around the sample is necessary in the instrument. By monitoring the fluid level in a capillary, changes in sample volume can be determined to high precision (reproducibility). Measurements on reference materials, i.e., gelatine and polyurethane, also indicate high accuracy (veracity). For natural sediments from Nova Scotia, Canada, Poisson’s ratios range from 0.4951 to 0.5 with no indication of anisotropy; therefore, such sediments act as incompressible solids to short-term/small-magnitude stresses, as occur during bubble formation and infaunal movement.     

The influence of neoliberalization on the success and failure of fishing cooperatives in contemporary small-scale fishing communities: A case study from Yucatán,Mexico

This paper examines the effects of neoliberalization on the opportunities and constraints that fishing cooperatives face in Yucatán, Mexico. Cooperatives have the potential to enhance small-scale fishing livelihoods and participate in sustainable resource governance. However, promoting cooperatives’ success entails developing a realistic understanding of the political and economic contexts in which they operate. Drawing on interview and census data, the analysis employs the theory of club goods to examine how the neoliberalization of Mexican fisheries policies in the 1980s and 1990s has affected cooperatives’ ability to provide members with collective benefits, and thus the success and failure of fishing cooperatives in the region. In general, neoliberalization has reduced support to fishing cooperatives and generated greater challenges for their success in Yucatán. The results of this study are likely relevant to many other small-scale fisheries in the South that have undergone similar processes of neoliberalization.     

The challenge and the promise of indigenous peoples’ fishing rights—from dependency to agency

Access to and use of natural resources as a cornerstone in sustaining indigenous cultures has recently obtained considerable international attention. Access to marine resources has become a key issue for many aboriginal peoples struggling to move from dependency on the nation state to self-determining agency. This essay describes and compares recent developments respecting Eastern Canadian Mi’kmaq and North Norwegian Saami initiatives to achieve recognition and realization of their aboriginal entitlements. Core characteristics of the Canadian and Norwegian nation state responses to these initiatives are outlined and discussed, with an emphasis on the implications of aboriginal entitlements for the present ‘privilege allocation’ premise and paternalistic character of fisheries management systems. The essay concludes with a discussion of the potentials for an alliance between coastal zone non-indigenous peoples and indigenous peoples for the purpose of developing an alternative approach to fisheries management that will enhance local agency in and the ecological sustainability of fisheries livelihoods.     

The economic importance of the Icelandic fisheries cluster—Understanding the role of fisheries in a small economy

Expansion and development of the fisheries sector was the driving force behind Iceland’s economic transformation during the 20th century. However, the role of fisheries in national and regional economies is neither well documented nor understood. National accounts do not fully reflect the significant part played by the fisheries as they do not take into consideration the various ways economic activity in the fisheries sector affects other branches of the economy. The fisheries sector, which includes fishing and fish processing, has been established as a base industry within the Icelandic economy. Using data collected during 2010 and 2011 and cluster analysis techniques, this paper seeks to establish the economic importance of the fishing industry in Iceland. As a base industry, this paper finds that a wide range of companies have gradually developed to service the sector and through these interlinkages, the fisheries sector and its related operations can be viewed as an industry cluster.     

The development and initial implementation of Australia's ‘integrated and comprehensive’ Oceans Policy

Australia's ratification of the Law of the Sea Convention has led to the declaration of an 11 million square kilometre exclusive economic zone. The increased responsibilities which go with this zone has resulted in the Australian Government preparing an “integrated and comprehensive” Oceans Policy. This paper reviews international progress in the development of oceans policy before describing and discussing the development and initial implementation of the Australian Oceans Policy. The development of the policy is analysed in terms of the interplay between various stakeholders and the issues included in the policy, with reference to lessons which may be of value to other countries in developing and implementing their own responses to the United Nations Law of the Sea Convention.     

Frozen fish block: how commited are North Atlantic States to accountability,conservation and management of fisheries?

The North Atlantic Ocean has numerous global, regional, and sub-regional instruments for fisheries management. Research for this paper has examined North Atlantic State levels of compliance with these instruments. The study reveals there to be moderate levels of overall compliance, and a latitudinal gradient of compliance with Northern States scoring higher than those in the south. Of particular significance for other global regions, and the future development of international fisheries law, are the findings that: few regional fishery bodies have a systematic program in place to monitor and assess compliance; and despite overall moderate levels of compliance with the conservation and management regimes, most fishery stocks are either overexploited or at risk or collapse.     

Economic dimension of the collapse of the ‘false cod’ Epinephelus aeneus in a context of ineffective management of the small-scale fisheries in Senegal

Small-scale fisheries are often seen as a solution for ensuring sustainability in marine exploitation. They are viewed as a suitable alternative to industrial fisheries, particularly when considering their social and economic importance in developing countries. Here, we show that the booming small-scale fishery sector in Senegal, in the context of increasing foreign demand, has induced the collapse of one of the most emblematic West African marine fish species, a large grouper Epinephelus aeneus, historically called ‘false cod’ by European fishers. The overexploitation of this species appears to be on account of the increasing effort sustained by a growing international demand and important subsidies, which resulted in a relative stability of the average economic yield per fishing trip and an incentive for continuing targeting this species to almost extinction. It is a critical time for addressing and mitigating the pressure of the small-scale fisheries to prevent declines of fish species that are highly valued by northern markets. A balance between conservation and exploitation is necessary to maintain ecological viability while considering the socio-economic importance of the small-scale fisheries. However, a new strategy is needed for conservation that will consider and articulate simultaneously the concerns regarding unmanaged and growing small-scale fisheries, rampant subsidies and increasing foreign demand.     

The gentleman’s agreements: a fisheries management case study from the Southwest of England

This paper assesses the unique ‘gentlemen’s agreements’ that exist between the crab fishermen of South Devon and trawlermen from the UK and other EU member states. The reasons for the success of the arrangements are discussed, particularly as the agreements apply to fisheries that are currently characterised by over-capacity, rent dissipation and non-compliance with regulations. The agreements are analysed in relation to other common-property resource-management systems, and their compatability with the principles of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) is established. Finally the agreements are compared and contrasted with the concepts of subsidiarity and co-management.     

The role of the capture fisheries and aquaculture sectors in the Korean national economy: An input–output analysis

The aquaculture industry can meet food security needs and reduce the pressure on marine resources. The expansion of aquaculture allows the fisheries industry to restructure from hunting to farming, and thus drives the need for an analysis of the economic impacts of aquaculture industry in consideration of the interdependence between capture fisheries and aquaculture industry. This study attempts to analyze the economic impacts of two fishery sectors using input–output (I–O) analysis, with specific application to Korea. To this end, this study applies the I–O models to the Korean I–O tables generated by the Bank of Korea, paying particular attention to the two fishery sectors in Korea, considering them as exogenous, and then determining their impacts. Specifically, the production-inducing effects, employment-inducing effects, supply shortage effects, sectoral price effects, forward linkage effects, and backward linkage effects of the two fishery sectors are presented over the period 1995–2010. For example, the production-inducing effect of a KRW 1.0 change in fisheries investment is larger in the petroleum and chemical sectors than in other sectors. Moreover, the aquaculture sector has larger employment-inducing effects than the capture fisheries. Finally, the potential uses of the results of this analysis are presented from the perspective of policy instruments, and policy implications are discussed.     

The ‘devils triangle’ of MSC certification: Balancing credibility,accessibility and continuous improvement

The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) has continued to strengthen its position in the market based on its credibility as a transparent, accountable and science-based third party certification scheme. However, the consolidation of MSC's credibility risks being undermined by the poor representation of developing world fisheries and concerns that the scheme provides little incentive for continual improvement for fisheries once certified. This paper argues that the challenge of maintaining credibility while increasing access and fisheries improvement constitutes a ‘devils triangle’. In the absence of a clear policy from MSC for balancing this triangle fisheries are taking their own actions to differentiate themselves both above (MSC-plus) and below (MSC-minus) the certification threshold. To avoid further undermining of the MSC the organisation should internalise such externally-led differentiation by moving towards an internally controlled tiered certification system based on its already existing metric-based principle indicator system. Doing so would communicate on equity and continual improvement both before and after certification, and create on-going incentives for fishers to enter into the MSC programme.     

The sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity in ABNJ: What can be achieved using existing international agreements?

While the international community debates the desirability and possible content of a new global instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction, alternative approaches to improving the application and implementation of existing agreements for the protection of biodiversity appear to have fallen off the agenda. Recent practice under existing global and regional agreements suggests that, given political will, significantly greater protections could be achieved through the more effective implementation of individual sectoral agreements. However, while single-sector measures have the potential to make a valuable contribution, ultimately only multi-sectoral, integrated, cooperative management can ensure the conservation and long-term sustainable use of marine biodiversity in ABNJ. This requires establishing mechanisms for cooperation both intra and inter-sectorally, as well as between the sectoral and global and regional conservation agreements. This paper examines recent initiatives within various sectoral and conservation treaty regimes aimed at improving their application within ABNJ as well as some of the challenges to, and options for, further and better cooperation and coordination among and between existing regimes, and it identifies a range of possible mechanisms for achieving more effective implementation and coordination among them. Greater use of existing mechanisms represents a sensible approach to making the most of existing arrangements without in any way foreclosing the possibility of the adoption of a more comprehensive, integrated global agreement for the protection of marine biodiversity in ABNJ.     

‘The Hare and the Tortoise’: Lessons from Baltic Sea and Mediterranean Sea governance

Commonly, the Baltic Sea is pictured as a proactive region with a long-standing tradition for cooperation and surrounded by the “greenest” EU countries. In contrast, southern countries often suffer from the “Mediterranean Syndrome” in which the heterogenous socio political situation is given as the “proof” that cooperation would not work. The Marine Strategy Framework Directive adopted by European Union in 2008 is an important step towards ecosystem-based marine management and provides a legal document suggesting marine regions as a scale for cooperation. In this paper, we aim to explore stakeholders׳ perspectives on key factors for good governance at the regional sea level covering the Eastern Baltic States and the south of France. We targeted a broad panel of professionals from different sectors with a political, economic or societal importance in the respective seas. We suggest that Baltic and Mediterranean stakeholders are going through very different stages of governance adjustment fitting the purpose of ecosystem-based marine management. Baltic institutions are well established, which in some way prevents structural analysis of whether the current governance model is the most appropriate reaching GES. In the Mediterranean, the EU strategies faces institutional challenges, which is leading stakeholders to think “out of the box” about what is really needed for implementing ecosystem-based marine management for this sea. It is suggested that a golden opportunity exists at present in the Mediterranean to create a regional platform of cooperation, not only to fit the MSFD implementation, but also to improve governance of the Mediterranean Sea and its environmental status.     

Long-term change in the abyssal NE Atlantic: The ‘Amperima Event’ revisited

The results from a time series study (1989–2005) at a depth of 4850 m on the Porcupine Abyssal Plain, NE Atlantic, are presented, showing radical changes in the density of large invertebrates (megafauna) over time. Major changes occurred in a number of different taxa between 1996 and 1999 and then again in 2002. One species of holothurian, Amperima rosea, was particularly important, increasing in density by over three orders of magnitude. There were no significant changes in total megafaunal biomass during the same period. Peaks in density were correlated to reductions in mean body size, indicating that the increases were related to large-scale recruitment events. The changes occurred over a wide area of the Porcupine Abyssal Plain. Comparisons made with changes in the density of protozoan and metazoan meiofauna, and with macrofauna, showed that major changes in community structure occurred in all size fractions of the benthic community at the same time. This suggests that the faunal changes were driven by environmental factors rather than being stochastic population imbalances of one or two species. Large-scale changes in the flux of organic matter to the abyssal seafloor have been noted in the time series, particularly in 2001, and may be related to the sudden mass occurrence of A. rosea the following year. Time-varying environmental factors are important in influencing the occurrence of megafauna on the abyssal seafloor.     

Economic gains from introducing international ITQs—The case of the mackerel and herring fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic

Achieving a balance between fishing capacity and fishing opportunities is one of the major challenges in European fisheries. One way to achieve this is to introduce individual tradable quotas or similar management measures. In several mackerel and herring fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic, such systems have already been introduced on a national basis and the long term economic gains of this have been acknowledged. This paper takes this a step further and investigates the potential economic gains from introducing individual tradable quotas between countries. Overall, the results show that the gross cash flow can be improved by 21% by allowing the mackerel and herring quotas to be traded internationally in the Northeast Atlantic. This rent gain arises mainly from increased productivity by allowing tradability between areas and fleets. The analysis also shows that the Danish pelagic fleet will gain from increasing its share of mackerel and herring quotas, whereas the Irish fleets are incentivised to sell quota, if individual quotas are allowed to be traded among countries. This result is in line with the qualitative analyses that show that Irish fishermen targeting herring in the Celtic Sea are negatively oriented towards international individual tradable quotas, whereas the Danish pelagic fishermen have strong preferences for international individual tradable quotas.