Long‐term presence and habitat use of Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris) in the Central Tyrrhenian Sea

Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris, G. Cuvier 1823) is a poorly known species and many international agreements have asked for a better understanding of its biology for conservation purposes. In the present study, systematic cetacean surveys were carried out from ferries along a trans‐regional fixed transect in the Central Tyrrhenian Sea (Civitavecchia, Latium – Golfo Aranci, Sardinia), just outside the southeastern border of the Pelagos Sanctuary. This research provided long‐term, consistent data on Cuvier's beaked whale during two research periods (1990–1992 and 2007–2011). The objective of the research was to compare the presence, distribution and habitat use of Cuvier's beaked whale between the two investigated periods. Summer data (June–September) from the two periods were compared in terms of frequency of sightings, group size and spatial distribution related to the main ecogeographical features. A presence‐absence model (generalized additive modelling) was performed to predict habitat suitability in the two study periods. The results highlight long‐term site fidelity of Cuvier's beaked whale in the Central Tyrrhenian Sea with encounter rates comparable to the ones reported for other key areas. Separate suitability models based on 1990s and 2000s data appeared to work for each individual time period but differences were evident between the two periods, indicating changes in habitat selection over time. Our findings of the study appear to expand the definition of suitable beaked whale habitat and underline how the temporal scale of the analysis can affect the results in habitat studies. Moreover, this research highlights the importance of the Central Tyrrhenian Sea marine region for Cuvier's beaked whale and the ability of continuous monitoring to identify changes in cetacean frequency and distribution, necessary for adaptive conservation management approaches.     

The science-policy interface in fisheries management: Insights about the influence of organizational structure and culture on information pathways

Understanding how information flows between scientific and decision-making communities is essential for the creation of effective strategies to link scientific advice to management decisions. Interviews of scientists and managers in two inter-related fisheries management organizations – the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) and the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) – and direct observations at science and management meetings revealed important organizational characteristics that influence the production, communication, and use of scientific information in decision-making. Formal processes for communicating scientific advice to managers – DFO's Canadian Scientific Advisory Secretariat (CSAS) and NAFO's Fisheries Commission's Request for Advice – demonstrate the use of credible, relevant, and legitimate advice for operational decision-making for fisheries management. Such defined processes, in addition to governmental bureaucracy, departmentalization, and de-centralization, can limit communication as highlighted for Canada as a Contracting Party to NAFO. Administrative mechanisms can pose challenges to implementing ecosystem approaches to fisheries management (EAF) and to addressing the impacts of climate change. Emerging organizational structures and behaviours facilitate communication at the science-policy interface, within and between the organizations, thereby improving understanding of science and management needs and promoting trust relationships between scientists and managers. The involvement of multiple stakeholders in the information pathways addresses concerns about scientific uncertainty in assessment advice. A linear model of information flow typifies operational decision-making; however, collaborative models that incorporate different types of information, apart from fisheries science, are required to enable ecosystem-based management. The characteristics of the information pathways are particularly relevant as the organizations address their EAF mandates.     

The scientific value of scientific whaling

Scientific whaling has polarized opinion for decades, and its scientific value has been intensely debated. Here, the output of scientific whaling programs is examined by comparing it to the scientific output pertaining to whales of countries that do not practice scientific whaling. Between 1986 and 2013, whaling and non-whaling countries produced, on average, similar total numbers of publications that were directly relevant to the goals of the scientific whaling permits issued by the International Whaling Commission (IWC), and similar numbers of papers that were relevant to whale ecology and conservation but not directly related to IWC goals. Half of the scientific productivity of scientific whaling countries resulted from non-lethal data collection. One-third of publications by whaling countries were published in peer-reviewed outlets, compared to twice as many for non-whaling countries. Publications by whaling countries were cited ~4 times less often than those of non-whaling countries, with no evidence of citation discrimination against whaling countries since the citation rates of papers that did and did not use lethal sampling were similar. These academic criteria suggest that although the overall volume of science produced by scientific whaling countries is similar to that of non-whaling countries, the quality of the science is not. Arguably, academic criteria are not the best way to assess the usefulness of science for management and conservation, but demonstrating links between the science produced by scientific whaling, its integration in management plans and actions, and shifts towards sustainable exploitation or recovery of whale populations is challenging.     

Forecasting the consequences of climate-driven shifts in human behavior on cetaceans

While climate change is expected to affect cetaceans primarily via loss of habitat and changes in prey availability, additional consequences may result from climate-driven shifts in human behaviors and economic activities. For example, increases in shipping, oil and gas exploration and fishing due to the loss of Arctic sea ice are highly likely to exacerbate acoustic disturbance, ship strikes, bycatch and prey depletion for Arctic cetaceans. In the tropics, climate change may result in increased hunting pressure on near-shore dolphins and whales off Asia, Latin America, Africa, and elsewhere as the availability of other marine resources diminishes. This study explores the range of potential consequences to cetaceans worldwide from predicted climate-driven shifts in human behavior, and evaluates the risks to particular species given their geographic ranges and habitat preferences. While concern about impacts of climate change on cetaceans has largely focused on polar species, the analysis presented here suggests tropical coastal and riverine cetaceans such as the Irawaddy dolphin, Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin, and finless porpoise are particularly vulnerable to those aspects of climate change that are mediated by changes in human behavior. Policy recommendations include the following: (1) information about cetacean populations should be incorporated into national, regional and international climate adaptation decisions wherever possible (for example, via GEF-sponsored adaptation initiatives); and (2) human-mediated impacts of climate change should be included in cetacean conservation and management plans, such as the management procedures of the International Whaling Commission (IWC), where possible. Because human responses to climate change are likely to evolve rapidly over the coming years and decades, it is important that local, regional and international cetacean conservation and management plans include regular reviews to allow them to adapt to new information.     

Evaluating the influence of candidate terrestrial protected areas on coral reef condition in Fiji

In any given region, there are multiple options for terrestrial protected area networks that achieve goals for conservation of terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem values. When deciding on the location of terrestrial protected areas, planners typically focus only on terrestrial conservation goals, ignoring potential linked benefits to marine ecosystems. These benefits include maintenance of downstream water quality, as forest protection can prevent changes in amount and composition of river runoff that negatively impacts coral reefs. This study aims to determine the benefit of different terrestrial reserve networks to the condition of coral reefs adjacent to the main islands of Fiji to support the work of Fiji's Protected Area Committee in expanding the national protected area estate through integrated land–sea planning. Options for terrestrial protected area networks were designed using six approaches, where the primary objective of each approach was to either achieve terrestrial conservation goals (e.g., represent 40% of each vegetation type) or maximize benefits to coral reefs by minimizing potential for land-based runoff. When achieving terrestrial conservation goals was the primary objective, the potential benefits to coral reef condition were 7.7–10.4% greater than benefits from the existing network of protected areas. When benefiting reefs was the primary objective, benefits to coral reefs were 1.1–2.8 times greater per unit area than networks designed to only achieve terrestrial conservation goals, but 31–44% of the terrestrial conservation goals were not achieved. These results are already being used by Fiji's Protected Area Committee to modify the boundaries of existing priority places to deliver outcomes that better meet terrestrial conservation goals while offering greater benefits to coral reef condition through prevention of run-off.     

Japan׳s whaling following the International Court of Justice ruling: Brave New World – Or business as usual?

Since 1987, Japan has conducted extensive special permit whaling (“scientific whaling”) in the Antarctic and North Pacific. This has been viewed by many as a way to circumvent the International Whaling Commission׳s (IWC) moratorium on commercial whaling, which was implemented in 1985. Recently, Australia took Japan to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) over this issue. Using various criteria, the Court ruled that Japan׳s whaling was not “for purposes of scientific research” as required by Article VIII of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, and ordered Japan to immediately cease its JARPA II whaling program in the Antarctic. Despite optimism that the Court׳s ruling might spell the end of Japanese whaling in the Antarctic and even elsewhere, Japan has indicated that it will redesign its whaling programs and continue operations. Based upon Japan׳s history at the IWC, I argue here that this was an expected outcome; I predict the course of events over the next months, and suggest that the ICJ ruling, while satisfying as an independent vindication of Japan׳s critics, represents little more than a temporary setback for that nation׳s whaling enterprise.     

A process to design a network of marine no-take areas: Lessons from the Great Barrier Reef

In the absence of consensus on the quantity and level of zoning protection required for coral reef and lagoon ecosystems, which process can guide decision makers? The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) worked with experts in a collaborative process to develop a set of Biophysical Operational Principles to guide the design of a network of no-take areas. First, 82 expert scientists were asked to provide data and advice on the physical, biological and ecological dimensions of the Great Barrier Reef ecosystem. They recommended that an independent Scientific Steering Committee (the Committee) was set up. How this Committee worked successfully with the GBRMPA staff is detailed here in a manner to enable other resource managers to adopt the process if they are working in data-limited marine environments.     

Assessment of IUU fishing for Southern Bluefin Tuna

Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing is recognized as one of the largest threats to the sustainability of the world's fisheries. This paper focuses on IUU fishing in the context of unreported catches by members or co-operating non-members of regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) and their implications for scientific assessments of stock status and management advice. A review of Japanese market statistics was undertaken in 2006 by an independent panel in relation to catches of southern bluefin tuna (SBT). Based on this review, the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT) concluded that very substantial and continuous unreported catches of SBT had been taken by longline vessels since at least the early 1990s. While uncertainty exists about the fleets contributing to these IUU catches, the assumption used within the CCSBT Scientific Committee is that a significant proportion of these were taken by Japanese longliners. Implications of these unreported catches for the stock assessments by RFMOs are discussed in light of the central role that Japanese vessel reported data have in the assessment of the world's tuna and billfish stocks. Results indicate that it is plausible that the unreported catches of SBT stem from the misreporting of catches as other tuna species and/or the location of fishing effort. The magnitude and extended period of the unreported SBT catches highlight the wide-spread risks of relying on fishery dependent logbook data in the absence of verification. An urgent need exists for minimum standards of verification of catch, effort and landing statistics for use in scientific assessments. The fisheries science community needs to be more pro-active in the development of such standards and the implementation of independent monitoring and verification. In addition, there is a need to reform the operation of the scientific bodies of RFMOs in terms of transparency, the treatment of uncertainty and the burden of proof if they are to be effective in providing objective scientific advice consistent with the intent of international agreements.     

The international whaling regime post 2007

Japan's delegation to the International Whaling Commission (IWC) must have gone to the 2007 meeting in Anchorage believing that the prospects of at least the commencement of the process leading to the overturning of the moratorium were better than they had been since 1986. The passing of the St. Kitts and Nevis Declaration at the 2006 Meeting, the gathering momentum of their Normalisation agenda, and their own determination to compromise some of their own agenda in the interest of harmony within the IWC, would have formed the basis of this belief. The reality was totally different. There was no compromise by the anti-whaling group within the meeting who also regained the simple majority position which had been lost in 2006.     

The case for an international commission for the conservation and management of sharks (ICCMS)

The current rate of shark global exploitation and mortality is arguably so high under current management regimes that unless a renewed initiative is undertaken some species of shark will become effectively extinct. Current efforts to sustainably manage shark mortality are driven primarily by domestic laws in a few countries, big international non-governmental organizations (BINGOs) promoting environmental laws in the countries or regions where they exist, a handful of regional fisheries management organizations (e.g., IATTC and ICCAT), and inter-governmental organizations such as CITES. The absence of enforcement capability is often argued as the critical component in the failure to protect sharks from overexploitation. The remedy advanced here goes far beyond the need for stepped up enforcement, and calls for the creation of an entirely new international management regime, the International Commission for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (ICCMS). Such an agency could learn from the experiences of management bodies tasked with conservation of species biologically similar to sharks, such as the International Whaling Commission (IWC), to improve its efficacy. Critics have identified many organizational flaws that reduced the IWC’s effectiveness during its earliest years. Some of those flaws are examined here and remedies are suggested that an ICCMS could use to create a more effective management regime. The life histories of elasmobranches and large whales are compared to illustrate their similarities as a biological foundation for the selection of the IWC as a model.     

An overview of cetacean strandings,bycatches and rescues along the western coast of the Taiwan Strait,China: 2010–2015

鲸豚类是大型的海洋哺乳动物,是海洋中的重点保护生物。在制定相应的保护政策前,应较为充分地了解其种群特征。而分析一个地区的鲸豚搁浅等信息,则能够为该地区提供其组成和物种多样性等基本信息。本研究收集了2010-2015年台湾海峡西岸发生的鲸豚类的搁浅、误捕和救护等资料和样本。结果共记录了48例事件,其中包括37例搁浅事件,8例误捕事件和3例救护事件,共涵盖了13个鲸豚物种。其中,中华白海豚和江豚占较大比例,分别为31.3%和25%。值得注意的是,其中10起事件（20.8%）发生在平潭岛,而且包含了3种须鲸和4种齿鲸。另外,我们还比较了台湾海峡东西两侧鲸豚物种的组成,发现共有31种鲸豚物种生活在台湾海峡,说明该地区的鲸豚物种丰富度较高。通过这些信息的收集和分析,我们基本摸清了台湾海峡的鲸豚物种分布。今后,我们将通过开展野外调查来系统地分析台湾海峡的鲸类物种组成,种群大小和栖息地状况等基础资料,为提供更好的保护管理打下良好基础。     

Changes in cetacean presence,relative abundance and distribution over 20 years along a trans‐regional fixed line transect in the Central Tyrrhenian Sea

From 1989 to 1992, systematic cetacean surveys were carried out twice weekly along a trans‐regional fixed transect in the Central Tyrrhenian Sea, utilising passenger ferries as research platforms. Using the same protocol and supervised by the same investigators, the research restarted in 2007, providing the opportunity to compare consistent data over a long 20‐year period. The monitored transect (Civitavecchia‐Golfo Aranci) runs along a strategic area just outside the southeastern border of the Pelagos Sanctuary. Over the last two decades, an increasing trend of temperature and salinity, in the deep and intermediate layers, has been documented in the region, as well as general changes over the Mediterranean basin. These changes, together with the increasing impact of some pressures (e.g. maritime traffic) may have led to changes in oceanographic and anthropogenic features and, subsequently, in cetacean presence and distribution. The research aimed to verify whether any changes occurred in the pattern of cetacean occurrence over the 20‐year period along the representative transect in the Central Tyrrhenian Sea. Data from 90 summer weekly runs undertaken in the 1990s were compared with data obtained from 95 runs undertaken in the 2000s. Each ferry run was considered an independent statistical unit: the encounter rate (ER = number of sightings per hour spent on effort) was calculated to compare relative abundance between periods, years and months. Spatial analysis was performed on geographical data using Kernel analysis to map the distribution of sightings. Logistic regression (GLM) was performed to compare habitat preference. Total encounter rate in the 1990s (ER = 0.59 ± CI 0.08) was significantly lower (P < 0.01) compared with the 2000s (ER = 0.94 ± CI 0.15). The same seven out of eight species known for their regular presence in the Mediterranean Sea were sighted in both the investigated periods. The most common species were striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) and common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Neither the pilot whale nor any other rare or occasional species were sighted during the 6 years of the study. Despite the time span, no dramatic changes were observed for any species, bar fin whale, in terms of distribution, relative abundance, group size or habitat preference. Sightings of fin whale have surprisingly increased (+300%, P< 0.001), and their spatial and temporal distribution and habitat preference showed a radical difference between the two periods. The 2000s surveys confirmed the existence of high density areas of cetaceans, especially of fin whale, and the consequent necessity of specific legislative acts for cetacean conservation.     

Cetacean research in the southern African subregion: a review of previous studies and current knowledge

Cetacean research, in terms of the number of papers, and areas for which data are available, has expanded considerably in the southern African subregion in the past decade, especially in the South-West Indian Ocean. We review cetacean research within this subregion from the 1800s to the present to provide an overview of findings, investigate trends and identify knowledge gaps. Data are presented separately for large whales (those subject to commercial whaling) and smaller cetaceans, and are separated by era and ocean basin. Over 550 peer-reviewed papers and books were identified relating to research on cetaceans within the subregion. More than half (284) have been produced since 1990 and 193 relate specifically to South African waters. The most-studied species are those that are most accessible due to their coastal distributions (southern right whale Eubalaena australis: 45 papers, humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae: 31 papers, killer whales Orcinus orca: 27 papers, Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin Tursiops aduncus: 30 papers, Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin Sousa chinensis (plumbea form): 25 papers) and/or were hunted commercially (sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus: 25 papers). Identified conservation concerns vary throughout the subregion, but include bycatch and directed hunts, oil and gas development, ecotourism activities, shifts in prey resources, and noise and chemical pollution. The inshore stocks of Bryde's whales Balaenoptera edeni, the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin and the Atlantic humpback dolphin S. teuszii were identified as the populations of highest conservation concern, although there are considerable knowledge gaps relating to deep-water species and almost no data (even on species occurrence) are available for several areas and countries.     

The added value of participatory modelling in fisheries management – what has been learnt?

How can uncertain fisheries science be linked with good governance processes, thereby increasing fisheries management legitimacy and effectiveness? Reducing the uncertainties around scientific models has long been perceived as the cure of the fisheries management problem. There is however increasing recognition that uncertainty in the numbers will remain. A lack of transparency with respect to these uncertainties can damage the credibility of science. The EU Commission's proposal for a reformed Common Fisheries Policy calls for more self-management for the fishing industry by increasing fishers' involvement in the planning and execution of policies and boosting the role of fishers' organisations. One way of higher transparency and improved participation is to include stakeholders in the modelling process itself. The JAKFISH project (Judgment And Knowledge in Fisheries Involving StakeHolders) invited fisheries stakeholders to participate in the process of framing the management problem, and to give input and evaluate the scientific models that are used to provide fisheries management advice. JAKFISH investigated various tools to assess and communicate uncertainty around fish stock assessments and fisheries management. Here, a synthesis is presented of the participatory work carried out in four European fishery case studies (Western Baltic herring, North Sea Nephrops, Central Baltic Herring and Mediterranean swordfish), focussing on the uncertainty tools used, the stakeholders' responses to these, and the lessons learnt. It is concluded that participatory modelling has the potential to facilitate and structure discussions between scientists and stakeholders about uncertainties and the quality of the knowledge base. It can also contribute to collective learning, increase legitimacy, and advance scientific understanding. However, when approaching real-life situations, modelling should not be seen as the priority objective. Rather, the crucial step in a science–stakeholder collaboration is the joint problem framing in an open, transparent way.     

Correct application of the IUCN protected area management categories to the CCAMLR Convention Area

The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) has been working to develop and implement a system of marine protected areas (MPAs) for over 10 years. Within CCAMLR there is a long-held belief that the area covered by the CCAMLR Convention is equivalent to a category IV protected area as defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). This belief was founded upon a comparison of the central objective of CCAMLR as defined by the CCAMLR Convention with the IUCN definition of a category IV MPA. This advice was accepted by the CCAMLR Scientific Committee but to date there has not been any analysis of this advice within CCAMLR, IUCN or in the literature. This paper critically analyses that advice, and finds that the CCAMLR Convention area does not meet the IUCN definition of an MPA and thus the CCAMLR Convention Area cannot be considered equivalent to a category IV MPA.     

Lessons in precaution: The International Whaling Commission experience with precautionary management

The precautionary principle (PP) only represents a new approach to managing uncertainty in so far that it requires proponents of an activity or substance to provide evidence that the activity/substance is harmless, as opposed to the more traditional “trial and error” approach that has instead placed the burden of proof that something is harmful on its opponents. This article critiques the PP as a policy making tool for managing uncertainty, focusing on the epistemological problems it raises, before then using the International Whaling Commission's experience with precautionary approaches to wildlife management to demonstrate the principle's limits and weaknesses when applied in a highly politicised policymaking environment. The article concludes that while the PP offers some benefits for managing uncertainty, its vagueness and openness to broad interpretation can also result in its application creating, rather than limiting, risks and uncertainty.     

The conservation of seals in Irish waters: How research informs policy

Ireland's waters represent a valuable resource encompassing productive fishing grounds and important oil and gas reserves. As a species rich marine environment, Ireland's waters are also an important habitat for many species of marine mammal. Specifically, grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) are widespread in Irish coastal waters and at least 24 species of cetacean have been reported at sea. The coastal zone represents critical habitat for many of these species, in particular seals that use both terrestrial and aquatic coastal habitat and are vulnerable to habitat degradation. Increasing exploitation of marine resources has increased their exposure to a range of anthropogenic effects including pollution and habitat loss. As top predators seals interact with commercial fisheries both directly and indirectly for resources and conflicts arise. The relatively recent move towards ‘greener’ resource exploitation such as marine renewable energy does not come without negative consequences for marine mammals including seals, which are afforded protection under national and international conservation legislation, highlighting the difficulties faced by resource managers. The sustainable exploitation of resources whilst conserving biodiversity is a challenging task and effective management implementation depends on appropriate policy informed by reliable scientific data. This paper outlines the conservation needs of seals in Irish waters, reviews our current knowledge of these species in Irish water, provides a critical analysis of the existing legislative framework and describes how research outputs can inform present and future policy decisions.     

The global potential for whale watching

Whaling as a commercial enterprise is now defunct, not least due to the moratorium placed on it by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) almost 20 years ago. However, two distinct groups, one in favor of ‘sustainable’ whaling and one completely opposed to any killing of whales, continue to argue at the IWC and other political arenas. Almost ignored in this debate is the current growth of the whale watching industry, a logical alternative use for whale populations. Based on ecological and socio-economic criteria, the potential for whale watching is estimated for maritime countries that do not currently engage in this industry. Results suggest that whale watching could generate an additional 413 million USD (2009) in yearly revenue, supporting 5,700 jobs. Together with current global estimates, this would bring the total potential for the whale watching industry to over 2.5 billion USD in yearly revenue and about 19,000 jobs around the world. These results are discussed from an economic and conservation policy perspective, with emphasis on potential benefits and limitations.     

黄河口及其邻近水域春季东亚江豚分布规律

东亚江豚(Neophocaena asiaeorientalis sunameri)是渤黄海水域仅有的常见鲸类动物,为我国二级保护水生野生动物,在世界自然保护联盟(International Union for Conservation of Nature,IUCN)物种名录中被列为濒危级.渤海黄河口及其邻近水域是东亚...     

Shifting baselines in scientific publications: A case study using cetacean research

The marine sciences have undergone a sequence of historical changes related to new methodologies, approaches and challenges. Most recently, deteriorating natural ecosystems and threatened component species have prompted a renewed change in the focus of scientific research on the marine environment. This study analyzes the scientific literature on cetaceans during the period 2005–2008 to demonstrate that a key focus of modern research is on conservation-related topics, and then compares it to the period 1970–1973 to demonstrate that this new focus represents a shift from basic biological and ecological issues. On average, approximately 46% of papers published on whales, dolphins and porpoises in 2005–2008 were categorized as conservation oriented versus focused on biology or ecology. This contrasts to approximately 10% in 1970–1973. This shift parallels other marine research subjects, such as benthic communities, coral reefs and sea turtles and reflects a general paradigm shift in marine research towards anthropogenic impacts. This is important guidance for institutions and organizations that wish to base their agendas and decisions on state-of-the-art scientific priorities.