The geology of the giant Nyankanga gold deposit,Geita Greenstone Belt,Tanzania

Nyankanga is the largest gold deposit in the Geita Greenstone Belt of the northern Tanzania Craton. The deposit is hosted within an Archean volcano-sedimentary package dominated by ironstones and intruded by a large diorite complex, the Nyankanga Intrusive Complex. The supracrustal package is now included within the intrusive complex as roof pendants. The ironstone fragments contain evidence of multiple folding events that occurred prior to intrusion. The supracrustal package and Nyankanga Intrusive Complex are cut by a series of NE–SW trending, moderately NW dipping fault zones with a dominant reverse component of movement but showing multiple reactivation events with both oblique and normal movement components. The deposit is cut by a series of NW trending strike slip faults and ~ E–W trending late normal faults. The Nyankanga Fault Zone is a major NW dipping deformation zone developed mainly along the ironstone–diorite contacts that is mineralised over its entire length. The gold mineralization is hosted within the damage zone associated with Nyankanga Fault Zone by both diorite and ironstone with higher grades typically occurring in ironstone. Ore shoots dip more steeply than the Nyankanga Fault Zone. The mineralization is associated with sulfidation fronts and replacement textures in ironstones and is mostly contained as disseminated sulphides in diorite. The close spatial relationship between gold mineralization and the ironstone/diorite contact suggests that the reaction between the mineralising fluid and iron rich lithotypes played an important role in precipitating gold. Intense brecciation and veining, mainly in the footwall of Nyankanga Fault Zone, indicates that the fault zone increased permeability and allowed the access of mineralising fluids. The steeper dip of the ore shoots is consistent with mineralization during normal reactivation of the Nyankanga Fault Zone.     

Geological, mineralogical and geochemical aspects of Archean Banded Iron-Formation-hosted gold deposits: Some examples from Southern Africa

This paper reports on different styles of gold mineralization observed in Archean gold deposits hosted by Algoma-type Banded Iron-Formations (BIF) in southern Africa. Genetic aspects of various occurrences are discussed in the context of mineralogical as well as geochemical data of BIFs from the greenstone terranes of the Zimbabwe and Kaapvaal cratons. The study revealed that, in spite of their different provenance and age (3.5 to 2.6 Ga), the BIFs are geochemically similar, whereas observed mineralogical differences reflect various degrees of metamorphic overprint. Generally, the BIFs belong to mixed oxide-carbonate-(±sulfide)-facies. REE distribution patterns of the investigated Archean BIF samples exhibit positive Eu-anomalies, which suggest a strongly reducing nature of the solutions which also provided the distinctive element contents now present in the chemical sediments. Irrespective of their formation, gold enrichment in BIF only occurs if the S- and/or As-contents of the BIFs exceed specific threshold values, i.e. gold mineralization is always associated with increased contents of the iron-sulfides pyrite, arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite. The studies indicate that BIF-hosted gold occurrences are not products of a single universal metallogenic process, but may be explained by several different genetic processes such as primary syn-sedimentary formation, diagenetic changes, metamorphic remobilization, and epigenetic hydrothermal emplacement.     

Log-uniform distribution of gold deposits along major Archean fault zones

The location of potentially unrecognized gold deposits in the close vicinity of the Cadillac–Larder Lake Fault Zone in the Archean Abitibi Subprovince (Canada) is predicted by applying a stochastic approach to the distribution of known gold deposits. The methodology uses the distances between neighboring orogenic gold deposits along the fault trace. The cumulative distribution of the curvilinear inter-distances along the fault zone, are adequately represented by a log-uniform model. The average inter-distance is 1.95 km, and an upper inter-distance of 5.6 km is observed. The same distribution pattern appears along the Destor–Porcupine Fault Zone (Abitibi). This log-uniform distribution shows that the spatial distribution of gold deposits is regionally controlled by the major crustal shear zone. Lithologies and structures only seem to exert a local influence at the deposit scale. The log-uniform spacing could be interpreted as the result of the crustal failure locations induced by hydraulic overpressure along mechanically independent segments on the main fault.     

双山子太古代绿岩带金矿的基本特征

文章简要介绍了双山子太古代绿岩带的基本特征,指出双山子绿岩带同加拿大阿比提比绿岩带有许多相似之处;论述了绿岩带中三期不同类型金矿的各自主要成矿地质特征,指出早期含金石英脉是太古代的产物,为冀东地区典型的太古代绿岩带金矿;毒砂型金矿可能是太古代最晚期的产物;晚期石英脉型金矿形成于燕山期.在该区东部南北长约30km的矿带中...     

坦桑尼亚恩泽加绿岩带隐伏金矿床综合找矿模型

恩泽加绿岩带是坦桑尼亚重要的成矿带之一,产出了高登普莱德(Golden Pride)等多个大型金矿。通过对坦桑尼亚恩泽加绿岩带已发现的隐伏金矿床进行分析研究,结果显示恩泽加绿岩带隐伏金矿床构造控矿作用明显;高精度磁法和激电中梯测量结果显示含矿构造蚀变带具有高磁、低阻、相对高极化的特征;土壤地球化学测量结果显示成矿元素Au异常在空间分布上大于相应的含矿构造蚀变带的分布范围,其浓集方向与含矿构造蚀变带展布一致,并与指示元素As、Sb的套合性较好。根据该区域隐伏金矿床的地质、地球物理及地球化学特征,对该区隐伏金矿床的找矿标志进行了总结,明确了各找矿标志与隐伏金矿床之间的关系,并在此基础上构建了恩泽加绿岩带隐伏金矿床的综合找矿模型,该模型的应用显示了多种技术手段联合实施在寻找绿岩带型隐伏金矿床的有效性。     

坦桑尼亚绿岩带构造蚀变岩型金矿床找矿方法

构造蚀变岩型金矿床是坦桑尼亚绿岩带重要的金矿床类型。从该绿岩带典型金矿床的地质特征、地球化学特征和地球物理特征出发,总结使用过的具有明显效果的物化探工作方法,初步提出了构造蚀变岩型金矿床的物化探找矿思路:在地质调查基础上,开展地球化学测量工作,在化探异常区开展物探综合测量工作,查明物化探异常吻合情况,圈定找矿靶区;后经异常检查、地质普查评价及钻探验证,发现工业矿体。这一找矿思路对坦桑尼亚环维多利湖绿岩带构造蚀变岩型金矿床的地质找矿工作具有科学的指导意义。     

Mixing of H2O-CO2 in fluid inclusions; geobarometry and Archean gold deposits

A modified Redlich-Kwong (MRK) equation of state for H₂O and CO₂ was used to calculate bulk molar volumes, mole fractions and CO₂ densities for mixed volatile fluid inclusions. The results allow very useful P-T diagrams to be constructed (for fixed CO₂ density) and contoured with volume percent CO₂ observed in the laboratory. These diagrams permit rapid qualitative or quantitative determination of the P-T path for a bulk inclusion isochore above the solvus in the system H₂O-CO₂ (±NaCl). The calculations suggest peak metamorphic pressures of 3–5 kb for some Archean greenstone gold deposits. Insights gained from this work may require reinterpretation of pressure estimates in published fluid inclusion studies.     

坦桑尼亚马拉-穆索马绿岩带金矿地质特征及成矿规律浅析

坦桑尼亚太古代马拉-穆索马绿岩带位于坦桑尼亚西北部、维多利亚湖东部地区,是坦桑尼亚重要的金矿聚集区。该地区主要金矿床类型为受陡倾或缓倾剪切构造带控制的构造蚀变岩型和石英脉型金矿床。本文通过对亚斯罗利、瑞万科玛和尼亚布隆渡等3个典型金矿床进行对比研究,系统分析了金矿床的成矿地质条件、矿化蚀变特征及矿石结构构造特征,总结了马拉-穆索马绿岩带金成矿规律,认为金矿床的形成与镁铁质火山-沉积岩、韧-脆性剪切构造带及岩浆活动有密切关系,近东西向韧-脆性剪切带是区内最主要的控矿构造,控制着主要工业矿体的分布。     

坦桑尼亚维多利亚湖东部绿岩带金矿床地质特征及成因浅析

坦桑尼亚维多利亚湖绿岩带是世界上非常有名的金成矿区,目前已发现数个世界级的金矿床。本文分析了该地区典型金矿床成矿地质特征,认为维多利亚湖东部绿岩带金矿床类型为构造蚀变岩型,矿体赋存在受EW向、NW向和NE向三组剪切破碎带控制的构造蚀变岩中,矿石类型主要为黄铁绢英蚀变岩和含金石英脉,与成矿有关的蚀变主要为硅化、绢云母化和黄铁矿化。同时,将这些矿床与中国胶东绿岩带的“焦家式”金矿床进行了对比,探讨了成矿模型研究所面临的问题。     

坦桑尼亚苏库玛兰德绿岩带金矿地质特征及找矿思路

东非维多利亚湖绿岩带区是非洲大陆第三大产金区,其南部的Sukumaland绿岩带具有优越的金成矿地质条件和巨大的金成矿潜力,发育Geita、Bulyanhulu等一系列世界级金矿床。该地区金矿工业类型以绿岩带石英脉型和BIF型为主,成矿受构造、岩浆岩与地层等条件的严格控制。本文以Sukumaland绿岩带南部的Kahama地区为实验区,在理清区域金矿成矿规律和控矿要素的基础上,通过GIS加权叠加的方法利用有限的地质、航磁和遥感数据划分了金成矿有利度。     

Nature of ore-forming fluid and formation conditions of BIF-hosted gold mineralization in the Archean Amalia Greenstone Belt,South Africa: Constraints from fluid inclusion and stable isotope studies

Orogenic gold mineralization in the Amalia greenstone belt is hosted by oxide facies banded iron-formation (BIF). Hydrothermal alteration of the BIF layers is characterized by chloritization, carbonatization, hematization and pyritization, and quartz-carbonate veins that cut across the layers. The alteration mineral assemblages consist of ankerite-ferroan dolomite minerals, siderite, chlorite, hematite, pyrite and subordinate amounts of arsenopyrite and chalcopyrite. Information on the physico-chemical properties of the ore-forming fluids and ambient conditions that promoted gold mineralization at Amalia were deduced from sulfur, oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios, and fluid inclusions from quartz-carbonate samples associated with the gold mineralization.Microthermometric and laser Raman analyses indicated that the ore-forming fluid was composed of low salinity H₂O-CO₂ composition (~3 wt% NaCl equiv.). The combination of microthermometric data and arsenopyrite-pyrite geothermometry suggest that quartz-carbonate vein formation, gold mineralization and associated alteration of the proximal BIF wall rock occurred at temperature-pressure conditions of 300 ± 30 °C and ∼2 kbar. Thermodynamic calculations at 300 °C suggest an increase in fO₂ (10⁻³²–10⁻³⁰ bars) and corresponding decrease in total sulfur concentration (0.002–0.001 m) that overlapped the pyrite-hematite-magnetite boundary during gold mineralization. Although hematite in the alteration assemblage indicate oxidizing conditions at the deposit site, the calculated low fO₂ values are consistent with previously determined high Fe/Fe + Mg ratios (>0.7) in associated chlorite, absence of sulfates and restricted positive δ³⁴S values in associated pyrite. Based on the fluid composition, metal association and physico-chemical conditions reported in the current study, it is confirmed that gold in the Amalia fluid was transported as reduced bisulfide complexes (e.g., Au(HS)₂⁻). At Amalia, gold deposition was most likely a combined effect of increase in fO₂ corresponding to the magnetite-hematite buffer, and reduction in total sulfur contents due to sulfide precipitation during progressive fluid-rock interaction.The epigenetic features coupled with the isotopic compositions of the ore-forming fluid (δ³⁴S_ΣS = +1.8 to +2.3‰, δ¹⁸O_H2O = +6.6 to +7.9‰, and δ¹³C_ΣC = −6.0 to −7.7‰ at 300–330 °C) are consistent with an externally deep-sourced fluid of igneous signature or/and prograde metamorphism of mantle-derived rocks.     

Genetic Analogy Between Sediment—Hosted Gold Deposits and Sediment—Hosted Copper Deposits in Southwest China

The sediment-hosted copper deposits according to the authors‘ study were formed from connate formation water during the post-sedimentary or diagenetic stage while the sediment-hosted disseminated gold deposits are unanimously considered to be of post-sedimentary hydrothermal origin.Therefore,apart from their own individulities.These two types of deposits must share some characters in common.Comparisons are attempted,in this paper,between the sediment-hosted copper deposits in southwest China and the Triassic sediment-hosted disseminated gold deposits in the Yunnan-Guizhou-Guangxi Triangle in terms of geological and geochemical features.     

Genetic aspects of gold mineralization in the Southern Granulite Terrain,India

Gold mineralization in Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT) of India has close spatial relationship with the shear zones (Moyar–Bhavani) present in Cauvery Suture Zone. Gold is found to be associated with primary quartz veins, placers and laterites. The gold prospects in SGT can be broadly grouped into three provinces i) Wynad-Nilgiri, ii) Malappuram and iii) Attappadi. The auriferous quartz veins are within the deformed biotite/hornblende bearing gneisses and amphibolite. Wall rock alteration is conspicuous around the mineralized veins and gives an assemblage of muscovite–calcite–ankerite–chlorite–biotite–pyrite related to fluid–rock interaction at the time of vein formation. Fluid inclusion studies of vein quartz gives an idea of the nature of the ore forming fluids, the fluid involved in gold mineralization is of low saline and aqueous-carbonic in composition and quite similar to the orogenic lode gold deposits reported world-wide. Micro-thermometric data indicates fluid immiscibility (phase separation) during trapping of fluid inclusions and this must have played an important role in gold deposition. Geochronological studies of mineral separates from Wynad-Nilgiri province using Rb–Sr and Sm–Nd isochron methods of the auriferous quartz veins gave an age of approximately 450 Ma for the vein formation. The present studies on SGT gold mineralization indicate 1. During the Pan-African orogeny, extensive fluid influx from mantle and metamorphism extracted gold from a mafic source and were focused along major structural discontinuities of Moyar–Bhavani Shear Zone, 2. The aqueous–carbonic ore fluid interacted with rocks of the upper crust and triggered a set of metasomatic changes responsible for the dissolved components such as Ca, Si and Fe and finally precipitating in the veins and 3. The mineralizing fluid with dissolved gold in sulphide complex got destabilized due to fluid immiscibility and wall rock alteration leading to the deposition of gold with associated sulphide minerals in the vein system.     

五台山区太古宙铁建造型金矿成矿流体性质和成因

五台山区铁建造金矿经历初生成矿作用和叠加成矿作用。初生成矿作用形成于变质峰期之后 ,与区域变质作用有关。矿石富含水溶液包裹体。包裹体均一温度 171～ 2 55℃ ,压力 0 .12～ 0 .31GPa。流体成分模式Au -H2 S NaCl-CO2 -H2 O。氢氧同位素具变质水和雨水双重性 ,流体主要来源于变质热液 ,受雨水混合。叠加成矿作用可能受岩浆活动影响 ,矿石富含CO2 包裹体 ,均一温度 30 6～ 385℃ ,压力 0 .6～ 1.0 5GPa ,流体盐度较高 ,成矿流体可能与岩浆热液有关。     

Influence of structural setting on sulphur isotopes in Archean orogenic gold deposits,Eastern Goldfields Province,Yilgarn, Western Australia

The published mean δ³⁴S values of ore-related pyrites from orogenic gold deposits of the Eastern Goldfields Province, Yilgarn Craton lie between −4‰ and +4‰. As for orogenic gold deposits worldwide, most deposits have positive means and a restricted range of δ³⁴S values, but some have negative means and wider ranges of δ³⁴S values. Wall-rock carbonation and back-mixing of similar-source fluids with different fluid pathways can explain some of the more negative δ³⁴S signatures. However, structural setting appears to be the most important factor controlling ore-fluid oxidation state and hence the distribution of δ³⁴S values in gold-related pyrites. Shear-hosted deposits appear to have experienced fluid-dominated processes such as phase separation, whereas stockwork, vein-hosted or disseminated deposits formed under conditions of greater rock buffering. At Victory-Defiance, in particular, negative δ³⁴S values are more common in gently dipping dilational structures, compared to more compressional steeply dipping structures. It appears most likely that fluid-pressure fluctuations during fault-valve cycles establish different fluid-flow regimes in structures with different orientations. Rapid fluid-pressure fluctuations in dilational structures during seismic activity can cause partitioning of reduced gas phases from the ore fluid during extreme phase separation and hence are an effective method of ore-fluid oxidation, leading to large, local fluctuations in oxidation state. It is thus not necessary to invoke mixing with oxidised magmatic fluids to explain δ³⁴S signatures indicative of oxidation. In any case, available, robust geochronology in the Eastern Goldfields Province does not support the direct involvement of oxidised magmatic fluids from adjacent granitic intrusions in orogenic gold genesis. Thus, negative mean δ³⁴S values and large variations in δ³⁴S values of ore-related pyrites in world-class orogenic gold deposits are interpreted to result from multiple mechanisms of gold precipitation from a single, ubiquitous ore fluid in varying structural settings, rather than from the involvement of oxidised ore fluids from a different source. Such signatures are indicative, but not diagnostic, of anomalously large orogenic gold systems. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Smaller gold deposits in the Archean Rio das Velhas greenstone belt, Quadrilátero Ferrífero, Brazil

The Quadrilátero Ferrífero is a classic gold province on a global scale, with hundreds of individual gold occurrences in the Archean greenstone belt comprising the Rio das Velhas Supergroup. There are numerous small gold deposits, including Faria, Esperança III, Bicalho, Bela Fama, Juca Vieira, Brumal, Boa Vista, Fernandes, Moita, Roça Grande, Bico de Pedra and Pari, as well as the world-class deposits of Morro Velho and Cuiabá. All these deposits, whether large or small, are structurally controlled and related to either shear zones or folds. Extensive down-plunge continuity is a consistent feature of the deposits. In the Rio das Velhas greenstone belt, six main styles of gold mineralization are recognized. These are deposits hosted within: (1), Lapa seca (e.g., Morro Velho, Bicalho, Bela Fama), (2), Banded iron formations (e.g., Cuiabá, São Bento, Raposos, Faria, Brumal, Roça Grande), (3), Quartz veins (e.g., Juca Vieira, Fernandes), (4), Disseminated sulfides with quartz veinlets (e.g., Moita), (5), Amphibolites (e.g., Pari), and (6), Disseminated to massive base-metal sulfides (e.g., Bico de Pedra). The first four types of deposits are epigentic (orogenic) gold deposits, similar to those found in greenstone belts worldwide. The last two are unusual types of gold deposit, peculiar to the Quadrilátero Ferrífero. Bico de Pedra is a polymetallic Au–Ag–Zn–Pb–Cu deposit related to an aplite intrusion, whereas Pari is a stratiform Au-bearing-banded iron formation metamorphosed to epidote–amphibolite metamorphic facies.     

Genetic types of gold deposits and their setting in geotectonic structures

Acritarch assemblages at the Cambrian-Precambrian boundary correlate the Siberian Tommotian deposits with the East European Lontova horizon, and the Nemakit-Daldyn horizon with Vendian deposits in Malyy Karatau.     

On the origin of Archean vein-type gold deposits with reference to the Larder Lake ‘break’ of Ontario and Quebec

The vein-type gold deposits of middle to late Archean age constitute one of the major sources of gold production in the world. These deposits are highly diverse in character, but are invariably found in proximity to mafic and ultramafic volcanic rocks, and closely associated with tectonically disturbed zones, or breaks, in the ancient crust. Using the Larder Lake break of northern Ontario and Quebec as a model, a general theory of genesis for such deposits is proposed.The Larder Lake break is of linear configuration, up to four miles wide, and extending over a distance of approximately 150 miles. Many rich and extensive vein-type gold deposits are associated with it. This break is recognized as a highly folded and faulted, dominantly sedimentary stratigraphic unit, formed as part of the development of the Blake River geosyncline of the Abitibi greenstone belt. Faulting is pervasive within the break but it is non-continuous.Under an oxygen-poor, somewhat acidic weathering regime believed extant in Archean time, gold and associated constituents, derived as weathering products from mafic and ultramafic volcanics, appear to have been concentrated as solutions and sols in muddy surficial accumulations along a paleo-continental margin. On transfer to a shallow marine environment, the gold-bearing solutions became concentrated mainly as cherty and pyritic evaporitic residues. These residues, infolded and variably metamorphosed and remobilized during ensuing geosynclinal development, formed the numerous and apparently heterogeneous gold deposits of the Larder Lake break.Mode of redistribution of gold-bearing residues and metamorphism of their host rocks varies widely. In mild form, little vein development is present and original sedimentary features of the host rock are often preserved. In more extreme cases, true hydrothermal veining is evident and complete recrystallization of the host rock has taken place, sometimes to the extent of formation of a melt with intrusive capabilities. In any case, the gold and related vein constituents remain closely associated with the primary host material and alteration effects are largely derived from the recrystallization of original host rock constituents.The suggested mode of genesis clarifies the relationship between various types of break-related, vein-type gold deposits and offers an explanation of the complex stratigraphy and structure of the break environment. It also suggests a penecontemporaneous relationship between the Larder Lake break and other auriferous breaks, of varying configuration, within the Superior Province of the Canadian Shield. The concept can be used advantageously in exploration for new breaks and new deposits.     

五台山地区韧性剪切带型金矿成因

五台山地区韧性剪切带型金矿分布于晚太古代碰撞造山带中，与世界许多太古宙绿岩带型金矿具有相似的特征。研究表明：成矿流体的δ１８ＯＨ２Ｏ＝－２．１‰～４．９‰，δＤ＝－６９‰～－１１２‰，蚀变碳酸盐矿物的δ１３ＣＰＤＢ＝－２．０‰～－１．４‰，δ１８ＯＳＭＯＷ＝１０．０‰～２０．０‰；载金黄铁矿的δ３４Ｓ＝－３．７‰～５．６‰。成矿前流体具有中—高盐度，成矿期流体以富含ＣＯ２、近似海水的δ１８Ｏ和海相碳酸盐的δ１３Ｃ值，成矿后流体具有较高的盐度及可变的δ１８ＯＨ２Ｏ、δ１３Ｃ值。这种金矿成矿流体很难与某单一流体源相对应，它反映的多是变质流体与海盆地铁镁质岩石在成岩过程中饱含的热卤水混合的结果。综合有关资料，提出本区韧性剪切带型金矿形成于太古宙末期汇聚型地球动力学背景下的弧－陆、陆－陆碰撞过程中，金矿化作用和分布受碰撞构造边界的大规模逆冲型韧性剪切带控制。