Timing and mechanisms of Central Himalayan exhumation: discriminating between tectonic and erosion processes

The ability to deduce exhumation mechanisms from thermochronological data is hampered by the fact that assumptions on the thermal state of the lithosphere have to be made. Additional argumentation is generally required to discriminate between erosion-controlled and tectonically induced exhumation. This problem can be overcome by studying the spatial distribution of zircon and apatite (U-Th)/He and fission track data. In this work the variation of four different low temperature isotopic systems generating age trends along a sampling line is used to infer mechanisms of Quaternary exhumation in the Central High Himalayan Metamorphic Belt. Observed zircon age trends with southwards increasing cooling ages (from 0.5 to 1.7 Ma) are attributed to tectonically induced exhumation. The uniform apatite cooling ages clustered c. 0.5 Ma are attributed to erosion.     

西昆仑及邻区区域构造演化的碎屑锆石裂变径迹年龄记录

通过对西昆仑北部山前的碎屑锆石裂变径迹年代学分析,将年龄划分为8个峰值区间:P1—4.7Ma以来;P2—13～9Ma;P3—24～18Ma;P4—47～33Ma;P5—79～57Ma;P6—131～103Ma;P7—185～180Ma;P8—267～235Ma,各峰值分布受阶段性抬升剥露和热事件共同影响。P8与P5主要受热事件控制,P6、P4、P3、P2、P1主要和抬升剥露有关,P7主控因素不明显。裂变径迹年龄峰值与西昆仑及邻区发生的一系列重大构造事件的时限吻合,并伴随强烈的区域性断裂活动,指示裂变径迹年龄峰值记录了西昆仑及邻区构造演化的重大事件;其中,晚白垩世以来喜马拉雅东、西构造结抬升具有相似性,反映了青藏高原自印度板块与欧亚大陆碰撞以来经历了相似的阶段性抬升。柯克亚连续沉积剖面显示西昆仑及邻区4.7Ma以来开始最后一次大规模抬升,并指示上新世以来西昆仑及邻区的径迹年龄储备表现出由多样性向一致性、由无规律向年轻化的发展趋势,暗示4.7Ma以来的抬升具整体抬升性质;3.6Ma为抬升的转折点,表现为抬升剥露速率加快、基底开始大规模出露地表,西昆仑山对南边的水流形成障碍。     

Rock cut stability assessment in mountainous regions

Ensuring stability of rock slopes is an essential requirement in the progress of our societies today. Rock determined to be loose or with potential for failure must be removed or restrained in some way. In our work, after doing an inventory of the instabilities that occurred in the last 5 years in the Basque Country, we analyse the different factors, in slope stability. The potential for failure is evaluated for different classes of rock mass, characterized previously by their geomechanical properties. The characterization of potential risk of each one is undertaken by considering 10 parameters that define the nature of mass rock, relative orientation and morphological features of the slope (interaction rock massif-slope) and infrastructure features (interaction rock massif-slope-infrastructure). Each of these parameters is evaluated separately and a Risk Factor (RF) is determined. The RF reaches a maximum value of 10,000 and allows to differentiate four categories of slopes; each category has its own priority. Rock mass characteristics also determine the potential damage from instability and the associated correction measures. The systematic evaluation of instabilities must allow establishing a priority in the correction measures and thus optimise the available economic resources.     

老挝及邻区构造单元划分与构造演化

藏东南三江—印支地区是世界构造地质研究的热点地区之一,而老挝位于中南半岛中北部,相比于周边邻区地质研究程度较低。文章结合近年来参加项目研究成果,综合前人研究资料,通过区域对比分析,总结归纳区内各构造单元的延伸趋势及其相互关系,对老挝及邻区进行构造单元划分,并初步概括了老挝及邻区的大地构造演化史。基于区域构造-岩石组合的分布发育及时空属性特征,文章将该区划分为7个三级构造单元:景洪—素可泰火山弧、难河—程逸缝合带、思茅—彭世洛地块、奠边府—黎府缝合带、万象—昆嵩地块、色潘—三岐缝合带、长山地块。研究区在不同地质历史阶段具有多重大地构造属性,总体上经历了3个重要大地构造演化阶段:前特提斯演化、特提斯演化和中新生代陆内演化阶段。前特提斯演化时期,主体表现为昆嵩、长山古地块的形成,一直到早古生代都具有亲扬子—华南地块的大地构造属性。自中晚古生代至早中生代为古特提斯演化时期,表现为以奠边府—黎府洋、色潘—三岐洋、难河—程逸弧后洋及邻区马江洋为主导的洋陆构造演化格局。晚中生代—新生代则为板内伸展、走滑、地壳物质均衡调整及伴生的盆地形成、碱性岩浆活动等作用期,也是区内现今地质构造格局的定形期。     

Assessment and mapping of land erosion potential in mountainous recreational areas

The prediction of land erosion rates under different types of land use is difficult because of the large number of variables involved. This paper attempts to isolate the most important characteristics of land contributing to its crodibility, and then describes the geomorphological approach used to assess and map land erosion potential in the Kamberg area of the Drakensberg mountains, South Africa. Emphasis is placed on the fact that land erosion potential varies with land use type, and recreational land use only is considered.The terrain at Kamberg could be divided into four sections, each displaying a degree of internal homogeneity in land erosion potential, yet distinguishable from its neighbours through geomorphological and topographic characteristics. Inherent subjectivity in terrain evaluation techniques, and lack of threshold values for variables concerned constitute the main weaknesses of the method used, and because of this, such work should be undertaken only by an experienced field geomorphologist.     

Using beryllium-7 to evaluate soil erosion processes in agricultural lands in semiarid regions of Central Argentina

This work presents the results of a soil erosion study using the ⁷Be technique. This technique estimates the water erosion/deposition from the comparison between ⁷Be soil content of a reference site and an eroded or sedimented site. The soil samples were collected from an agricultural area of the semiarid region of Argentina near San Luis City, which has a marked rainfall season. The area has been used for crop cultivation, being subjected to plowing practices. The ⁷Be in the Reference Site was in the first centimeter of soil, showing the typical exponential decreasing of ⁷Be soil content with depth, with the ⁷Be inventories value being 340?±?50 Bq m^?2 for the dry season and 571?±?48 Bq m^?2 for the rainy season. The ⁷Be technique was applied to a potential eroded site subjected to traditional tillage practices (plowing). A net soil erosion value of 13.5 t ha^?1 (1.35 kg m^?2) was obtained. From the assumptions of the applied technique, we can draw the inference that this erosion was caused by rains produced in the month prior to the date of soil sampling.     

An assessment of soil erosion probability and erosion rate in a tropical mountainous watershed using remote sensing and GIS

Remote sensing data and Geographical Information System (GIS) has been integrated with the weighted index overlay (WIO) method and E ₃₀ model for the identification and delineation of soil erosion susceptibility zones and the assessment of rate of soil erosion in the mountainous sub-watershed of River Manimala in Kerala (India). Soil erosion is identified as the one of the most serious environmental problems in the human altered mountainous environment. The reliability of estimated soil erosion susceptibility and soil loss is based on how accurately the different factors were estimated or prepared. In the present analysis, factors that are considered to be influence the soil erosion are: land use/land cover, NDVI, landform, drainage density, drainage frequency, lineament frequency, slope, and relative relief. By the WIO analysis, the area is divided into zones representing low (33.30%), moderate (33.70%), and high (33%) erosion proneness. The annual soil erosion rate of the area under investigation was calculated by carefully determining its various parameters and erosion for each of the pixels were estimated individually. The spatial pattern thus created for the area indicates that the average annual rate of soil erosion in the area was ranging from 0.04 mm yr⁻¹ to 61.80 mm yr⁻¹. The high soil erosion probability and maximum erosion rate was observed in areas with high terrain alteration, high relief and slopes with the intensity and duration of heavy precipitation during the monsoons.     

Soil erosion hazard in the Yimeng mountainous region, North China

The Yimeng mountainous region of North China is a unique region with vulnerable ecosystems and under the most pressure from various risk sources. In recent years, this region has experienced rapid economic growth. However, the study area is vulnerable to environmental hazards and is seriously affected by soil erosion due to natural factors and human activities, thereby increasing the risk of environmental degradation in the Yimeng mountainous region of Shandong Province in North China.     

Value of tectonic regions in the United States

Occurrence of mineral resources is directly or indirectly controlled by major tectonic processes. Additionally, similar mineral deposit types tend to be concentrated within geologically and tectonically similar areas. As a result, information on the production history of minerals in a well-explored and developed tectonic region—such as within the United States—can be used to estimate resources of geologically similar, underdeveloped tectonic areas elsewhere. For such application, two regions should be compared for geologic similarity using all available geologic information. Estimates of resources based on geologic analogy can be useful in large-scale mineral exploration programs where relatively little geologic information is available, such as in many developing countries. In this study, seven major tectonic regions within the United States are evaluated in terms of estimated mineral value as measured by historical mineral production and economic reserves. The seven regions assessed are: (1) Cordilleran Mountain Belt, (2) Colorado Plateau, (3) Central Stable Region, (4) Canadian Shield, (5) Ozark-Ouachtia Province, (6) Gulf and Atlantic Coastal Plain, and (7) Appalachian Mountain Belt. Regions are ranked in terms of estimated value of (1) 33 major mineral commodities, (2) nonfuel minerals, (3) hydrocarbons, and (4) individual mineral commodities. In terms of total value of historical mineral production and estimated economic reserve amounts of 33 major mineral commodities, the Gulf and Atlantic Coastal Plain is most valuable, with an estimated value of 1980 US$1,970,000/km². Information on historical mineral production of U.S. tectonic regions may be useful in estimating resources in tectonically similar, underdeveloped regions elsewhere.     

江苏宜（兴）—溧（阳）山区构造样式组合分析

前人应用地质力学和构造体系的观点建立了宜溧地区交叉网络的构造格架。近年来在宜溧山区开展了地热资源勘查与研究工作,对本区的构造组合样式又有了新的认识。结合地热勘查的最新成果,对宜溧山区的构造样式组合进行了分析研究,认为宜溧山区大致以烟山—大贤岭铲形推覆体为界可分为溧阳火山凹陷构造区与张渚—湖滏煤系盆地构造区,两构造盆地在构造样式组合、运动序次和演化时序上均有较大区别。     

Structure and tectonic style of the Precambrian shields and platforms of northern Australia

The structure and tectonic style of Australia, to the north of the Musgrave Block and the southern Canning Basin and to the west of the Tasman Orogenic Province, are summarized.Northern Australia is largely occupied or underlain by the early Proterozoic North Australian Orogenic Province, which is bounded by younger mid-Proterozoic mobile belts of the Central Australian Orogenic Province along the eastern and southern margins. In the north, a basement of the Archaean West Australian Orogenic Province underlies the North Australian Orogenic Province. The strata of the North Australian Platform Cover were mildly to moderately deformed at the time when the mid-Proterozoic mobile belts were active. The late Proterozoic and Palaeozoic Central Australian Platform Cover developed over both the North and Central Australian Orogenic Provinces. Finally, the Mesozoic—Cainozoic Trans-Australian Platform Cover transgressed most of the region.The tectonic evolution of northern Australia can be clearly related to the times of cratonisation of its basement. A comparatively uniform pattern of major fractures, trending roughly northerly and northwest, was established throughout the region very early in its history. The subsequent evolution resulted from repeated reactivation of these fractures.Much of the structure may possibly be explained by a simple model in which a central block, roughly between the Kimberleys and Mount Isa, was displaced northwards relative to the blocks on either side and locally, the horizontal displacements were absorbed along east—west-trending zones of thrusting and folding, where the cover was crumpled against rigid blocks.     

Interaction between tectonic and erosion processes on the morphogenesis of an Alpine valley: geological and geophysical investigations in the lower Romanche valley (Belledonne massif, western Alps)

In the Belledonne massif, the steep Paleozoic Belledonne Middle Fault (BMF) separates micaschists, displaying numerous landslides, from amphibolites. The massif is incised by the lower Romanche river valley. When crossing the BMF, the valley widens into a lozenge-shaped basin recently interpreted as an active pull-apart type structure associated with a major N110 striking Quaternary fault. Multidisciplinary investigations were carried out in the basin to check if this model has implications on the seismic and landslide hazard assessment. This study demonstrated the existence of a N80 sinistral strike slip Séchilienne Fault Zone (SFZ). This fault zone is suspected to offset the BMF by 375 m across the basin. Geophysical experiments revealed that the bedrock depth increases strongly in the basin, up to 350 m. Our study invalidates the active pull-apart origin of the basin and suggests it results from Quaternary glacial and fluvial erosion processes, magnified by the intersection of two inherited structures, the BMF and the SFZ.     

Granite subduction: Arc subduction, tectonic erosion and sediment subduction

Continental growth has been episodic, reflecting the episodic nature of mantle dynamics as well as surface dynamics of the Earth, the net result of which is exhibited by the present mantle with two huge reservoirs of TTG rocks, one on the surface continents and the other on the D″ layer on the Core-Mantle Boundary (CMB). During the early half of the Earth history, the felsic continental crust on the surface which formed in an intra-oceanic environment has mostly been subducted into the deep mantle, except in the rare case of parallel arc collision. The growth history of continental crust shows that with its simultaneous formation, a considerable amount must have also been subducted. Such ongoing subduction processes can be seen in the western Pacific region, through tectonic erosion, arc subduction, and sediment-trapped subduction.     

几种土壤的细沟侵蚀过程及其影响因素

通过间隔为11h的二次人工模拟降雨和冲蚀槽试验研究了10种土壤的侵蚀过程,发现在第2次降雨中大多数土壤出现了细沟侵蚀形式。采样微形态观察发现,在第1次降雨中形成结皮的土壤在第2次降雨中出现了细沟侵蚀;产流产沙观测发现所有出现细沟侵蚀的土壤在第1次降雨中径流含沙量逐渐减少,而第2次降雨中有一个先剧增后减少的过程。土壤理化分析及多元逐步回归分析结果表明,土壤颗粒组成、有机质含量、铁铝含量等因素对细沟侵蚀的影响表现不明显,而与土壤团聚体有关结构指标、细沟侵蚀、产流产沙速率及总量呈显著相关关系。分析表明,团聚体分散度、崩解速率与渗透系数之比两个指标能较好地预测细沟侵蚀发生的可能性,同时也能很好地预测侵蚀产沙量。     

Spatial modelling of soil erosion potential in a mountainous watershed of South-eastern Serbia

This study employed genetic adaptive neural networks in the classification of high-resolution satellite images from which data related to surface conditions in mountainous areas of Taiwan were derived. Principal component analysis was then used to extract factors associated with the threat of natural disaster, and logistic regression was used to compute the probability of disaster occurrence. Through field surveys, interviews with district officials and a review of relevant literature, the probability of a sediment disaster was estimated as well as the vulnerability of the villages concerned and the degree to which these villages were prepared, to construct a risk evaluation model. A geographic information system was used to plot regional risk maps as a means to enhance the safety of residents in the study area. The risk assessment model can be used by authorities to make provisions for high-risk areas, to reduce the number of casualties and social costs of sediment disasters.     

Soil erosion processes in the loess plateau of Northwestern China

The soil erosion processes in the Loess Plateau may be divided into three types: namely, waterflow erosion; gravitational erosion; wind erosion. The waterflow erosion is most widely distributed and is the main erosion action in the Loess Plateau. The main factors dominating the occurrence and development of the soil erosion in the Loess Plateau are: 1. rainfall; 2. topography; 3. vegetation; 4. soil character. The energy of erosion action depends upon the rainfall and topography, but erodiblity depends upon the vegetation and soil properties. The degree of soil erosion in the Loess Plateau changes with variations of interaction of erosion and anti-erosion measures.     

基于TRMM降水数据的山区降水垂直分布特征

选择天山和祁连山区为典型区,利用台站降水数据验证以上两区多卫星降水数据(TRMM)精度的基础上,借助TRMM数据分析了所选山区年降水梯度效应,并探讨了天山及祁连山最大降水高度带.结果表明,多卫星降水数据在天山和祁连山区精度较高,天山及祁连山年降水量都明显受到海拔影响,降水随海拔升高而增加,但天山降水与海拔正相关关系最好,南、北和西坡相关系数分别为0.90、0.81和0.58,多年平均降水直减率分别为11.0mm/100 m、6.3 mm/100 m、7.4 mm/100 m,最大降水高度带则分别位于海拔2 200~3 500 m和3 200~3 700 m和3 000m左右;祁连山东、中、西段降水随海拔有增加趋势,但降水梯度效应在祁连山东段明显高于祁连山中西段地区,梯度效应由东向西呈现递减趋势,其最大降水带主要分布在东段4 000~4 500 m的高山带.