太平洋副热带东部模态水的年际变化及机制研究

根据2004—2014年的全球海洋Argo网格数据集(BOA_Argo)和ECMWF ERA-Interim再分析资料,计算了冬季太平洋副热带东部海区的水团变性率及水团形成率,对南北太平洋副热带东部新生成模态水的年际变化及其形成机制进行了研究。结果表明:北太平洋副热带东部模态水(NPESTMW)和南太平洋副热带东部模态水(SPESTMW)的新生成体积及核心密度在2004—2014年具有明显的年际变化:NPESTMW主要经历了2005—2009年和2010—2013年2次持续4～5a的体积和密度增加过程,其中体积最大值出现在2009年,最小值则出现在2005和2014年。南半球SPESTMW则经历了2007—2009年和2010—2013年共两次持续3～4a的体积和密度减小过程,其中体积的最小值出现在2009、2013年,最大值出现在2010年。合成分析发现,由冬季海面热通量异常引起的深混合层内与模态水密度相当的水团表层形成率异常,可能是导致NPESTMW和SPESTMW新生成水体积年际变化的重要因素;同时,SPESTMW新生成水的年际变化受局地风应力旋度的年际变化影响明显。     

南海 18°N 断面 上的体积和热盐输运

以2005—2008年4年中南海北部开放航次所获得的水文观测资料为基础,结合卫星高度计遥感资料,采用动力计算方法计算南海18°N断面的经向地转流,并与声学多普勒流速剖面仪(Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers,ADCP)走航观测资料进行对比,进而计算出通过南海18°N断面1000m以浅的各站位以及断面上总的经向地转体积、热、盐输运量。结果表明,2005—2008年南海北部开放航次期间18°N断面上的经向地转流呈相间带状分布,各站位经向地转流流速垂向分布和ADCP观测的大体一致。从卫星高度计获得的海面高度场可知,经向地转流流向的空间变化与海洋中尺度涡旋的活动密切相关。2005—2007年航次期间南海18°N断面上1000m以浅总的经向地转体积、热、盐输运均为南向输运,其3年的平均输运量分别为11.8Sv(1Sv=106m3.s 1)、0.38PW、418.8Gg.s 1;其年际间差别较大,经向地转体积、热、盐输运量均为2005年最大,2006年次之,2007年最小。2008年110°—117°E之间1000m以浅总的海水地转体积、热、盐输运量分别为7.3Sv、0.22PW、259.4Gg.s 1。     

南黄海冬季温盐年际变化时空模态与气候响应

根据南黄海36°N断面1977-2013年历年2月表底层温度、盐度观测资料,采用旋转经验正交函数(REOF)、最大熵谱分析和延迟相关分析等方法分析了断面温盐年际变化时空模态和机制。断面表底层温度时空模态有二种:鲁南近海型和南黄海槽型,模态时间分量主要有准周期变化和线性趋势变化,表底层温度鲁南近岸型模态有显著线性升高趋势,表底层温度南黄海槽型模态准平衡变化。温度模态年际变化是对局地气温、风应力、黄海暖流、太平洋年代际振荡指数位相和ENSO事件的响应。断面表底层盐度时空模态有二种:鲁南近海型和南黄海槽型,模态时间分量主要有准周期变化和线性趋势变化,表层盐度南黄海槽型模态有显著线性降低趋势,表底层盐度鲁南近海型模态准平衡变化。表底层盐度模态是对辽南水、渤南沿岸水和黄海暖流水盐度年际变化的响应。     

南黄海夏季温盐年际变化时空模态与气候响应

根据南黄海断面1977—2016年历年8月标准层温度、盐度与气候要素观测资料,采用时空分析等方法,分析了南黄海断面夏季温度、盐度年际时空变化与气候响应。断面温度主要有4种时空模态,夏季风生环流、冷水团强度、面积与断面冬季温度模态是主要温度模态年际变化的主要影响因素;夏季风生流场形态、春季PDO指数与断面冬季温度模态是次要温度模态年际变化的主要影响因素;温度模态时间分量均为准平衡态长期变化。断面盐度主要有4种时空模态,夏季苏北沿海低盐度水体、南黄海中部高盐度水体与夏季黄海风生流输送作用是盐度主要模态年际变化的主要影响因素;夏季南黄海降水量减少与风生流输送减弱是盐度次要模态年际变化的主要影响因素。盐度主要模态时间分量为准平衡态长期变化,次要模态时间分量存在显著线性低盐趋势变化。断面夏季温盐多年平均分布主要受到夏季多年平均风生环流影响。断面核心冷水团月平均温度为准平衡态长期变化;面积存在显著线性减小趋势,黄海风生流场季节与年际变化是南黄海核心冷水团年际变化主要影响因素,春季PDO指数对冷水团面积年际变化有显著非线性影响。断面冷水团、核心冷水团月平均盐度为显著线性低盐趋势周期年际变化。由于黄海温盐长期线性趋势变化,与30多年前状况相比,目前黄海温盐场季节循环时空变化形态可能已经发生显著改变。     

渤海冬季溶解氧与表观耗氧量年际时空变化

根据渤海断面1978-2013年历年2月表底层海水温度、盐度、溶解氧观测资料,采用旋转经验正交函数(REOF)、最大熵谱和延迟相关分析等方法,分析得出:渤海冬季表底层溶解氧年际变化主要有2种时空模态:开阔海型和黄河口型,第1种模态时间分量为显著周期和线性下降趋势变化,表底层水体存在溶解氧显著线性降低趋势;第2种模态时间分量为显著周期准平衡变化。渤海冬季表底层表现耗氧量年际变化主要有2种时空模态:渤中-黄河口型和辽河口型,第1种模态时间分量为显著周期和线性上升趋势变化,表底层水体存在显著线性贫氧趋势;第2种模态时间分量为显著周期准平衡变化。冬季渤海中部和黄河口附近海域是出现溶解氧降低与贫氧状况显著线性趋势的主要海域,海洋生化效应和冬季水温模态年际变化是影响渤海冬季溶解氧、表观耗氧量模态年际变化的主要因素之一。渤海冬季表层溶解氧、表现耗氧量时空模态出现10a尺度跃变。     

渤海夏季海水磷酸盐年际时空演变

根据1978-2011年渤海断面历年8 月海水表底层活性磷酸盐监测资料,采用REOF、最大熵谱和延迟相关分析等方 法,分析渤海夏季表底层活性磷酸盐年际时空变化有3种模态：河口型、辽东湾型和开阔海型。其中河口型和开阔海型模态 年际变化为显著周期和线性减小趋势。辽东湾型模态年际变化为显著周期的准平衡变化。磷酸盐3 种时空模态之间存在延迟 相关关系,夏季海流、水温、浮游植物生消以及磷酸盐再生、排放、海水-沉积物交换、磷酸盐沉积等过程年际变化与3 种 形态的磷酸盐年际变化位相延迟相关分布有关。渤海夏季断面海水磷酸盐浓度年际变化呈现波动形减小,2004 年后,渤海中 部磷酸盐浓度显著减小。     

北黄海夏季温盐年际变化时空模态与气候响应

根据北黄海断面1976~2015年历年8月温度、盐度与长岛气候要素资料,采用旋转经验正交函数(REOF)、最大熵谱分析和延迟相关分析等方法,研究了北黄海断面夏季温度、盐度年际变化时空模态与气候响应.断面温度主要有4种时空模态:第一、二模态为海洋因素影响的年际变化分量,渤海断面夏季温度分量和7月太平洋年代际振荡(PDO)指数的线性与非线性作用是主要影响因素.第三、四模态为海洋与大气因素影响的年际变化分量,渤海断面夏季温度分量、断面冬季表层平均温度、7月风驱环流强度和5月PDO指数的线性和非线性作用是主要影响因素.断面盐度主要有4种时空模态:第一模态为海洋与大气因素影响的年际变化分量,渤海夏季盐度、夏季降水量及断面冬季表层盐度是主要影响因素;8月纬向风驱环流是次要影响因素.第二至四模态为大气因素影响的年际变化分量,7、8月风驱环流强度和夏季降水量是主要影响因素.北黄海夏季风驱环流分布是北黄海断面夏季温盐年际平均分布的主要影响因素.断面温盐垂直层结年际变化为准平衡态周期年际变化.北黄海断面冷水团月平均温度和面积为准平衡态周期年际变化,断面温度第三模态、断面冬季表层平均温度是断面冷水团月强度年际变化的主要影响因素,7月PDO指数是非线性影响因素.北黄海断面冷水团月平均盐度为显著线性低盐趋势周期年际变化,断面盐度的第一至三模态以及渤海断面夏季盐度分量的线性和非线性作用是冷水团月平均盐度年际变化的主要影响因素.北黄海断面夏季冷水团中平均温度、盐度的长期变化趋势是不同的,不存在长期稳定的比例关系.     

1987—2010年PN、TK断面黑潮流场的时空变化

基于1987-2010年PN断面和TK断面长期水文调查资料,使用逆方法计算了黑潮在这两个断面的流场,进而分析了其时空变化.结果表明,黑潮流量变化的主要周期为准4年和1年,季节变化呈夏强秋弱.两个断面流场的EOF分解的主模态表明:在PN断面,流场变化主要是同位相的,说明了黑潮流量的变化对流场起调控作用;而在TK断面,南北两个海沟中流场呈反位相变化,说明黑潮的路径变化是影响流场变化的主要因素.     

东海黑潮流量的年际和年代际变化

本文基于日本气象厅1956—2005年间在东海PN断面获得的观测资料,结合NCEP风场资料,研究了东海黑潮流量的年际和年代际变化特征,并探讨了西北太平洋风场和太平洋年代际振荡(PDO)对黑潮流量年际和年代际变化的影响。结果表明,东海黑潮流量基本服从正态分布,主要集中在19—33Sv范围内,其多年平均值为24.30Sv(1Sv=106m3/s);季平均、冬、夏季黑潮流量都存在着显著的年际和年代际变化。东海黑潮流量输送具有长期的线性增强趋势,在1956—2005年间它们分别增加了8.73Sv、9.86Sv和9.38Sv。相关与合成分析结果表明,黑潮源区和东海黑潮流域上空的经向风异常是黑潮流量年际变化的重要影响因素,而PDO则对黑潮流量的年代际变化有重要作用。     

北黄海冬季温盐年际变化时空模态与气候响应

根据1977-2012年历年2 月份北黄海断面表底层温度、盐度观测资料,采用旋转经验正交函数（REOF）、跃变分 析、最大熵谱分析和延迟相关分析等方法,分析了断面温度、盐度年际变化时空模态和机制。断面表底层温度、盐度时空模 态主要有两种：开阔海型和近岸（近海） 型。温度、盐度模态的时间分量变化主要有准周期变化和线性趋势变化,温度模态 时间分量存在显著线性升高趋势。历年2月平均气温年际变化主要影响开阔海型温度模态,历年1 月经向伪风应力和年际变 化主要影响近岸型温度模态。盐度模态主要受渤南（鲁北）水和辽南水盐度年际变化影响,受渤南（鲁北） 水影响的盐度模 态,模态时间分量存在显著线性升高趋势;受辽南水影响的盐度模态,模态时间分量存在显著线性降低趋势,其中模态线性 升高的斜率大于模态线性降低的斜率。     

Circulation and transport of water masses in the Lazarev Sea, Antarctica, during summer and winter 2006

The distribution and circulation of water masses in the region between 6°W and 3°E and between the Antarctic continental shelf and 60°S are analyzed using hydrographic and shipboard acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) data taken during austral summer 2005/2006 and austral winter 2006. In both seasons two gateways are apparent where Warm Deep Water (WDW) and other water masses enter the Weddell Gyre through the Lazarev Sea: (a) a probably topographically trapped westward, then southwestward circulation around the northwestern edge of Maud Rise with maximum velocities of about 20 cm s⁻¹ and (b) the Antarctic Coastal Current (AntCC), which is confined to the Antarctic continental shelf slope and is associated with maximum velocities of about 25 cm s⁻¹.Along two meridional sections that run close to the top of Maud Rise along 3°E, geostrophic velocity shears were calculated from CTD measurements and referenced to velocity profiles recorded by an ADCP in the upper 300 m. The mean accuracy of the absolute geostrophic velocity is estimated at ±2 cm s⁻¹. The net baroclinic transport across the 3°E section amounts to 20 and 17 Sv westward for the summer and winter season, respectively. The majority of the baroclinic transport, which accounts for ∼60% of the total baroclinic transport during both surveys, occurs north of Maud Rise between 65° and 60°S.However, the comparison between geostrophic estimates and direct velocity measurements shows that the circulation within the study area has a strong barotropic component, so that calculations based on the dynamic method underestimate the transport considerably. Estimation of the net absolute volume transports across 3°E suggests a westward flow of 23.9±19.9 Sv in austral summer and 93.6±20.1 Sv in austral winter. Part of this large seasonal transport variation can be explained by differences in the gyre-scale forcing through wind stress curl.     

A deep cyclonic gyre in the Australian–Antarctic Basin

The traditional image of ocean circulation between Australia and Antarctica is of a dominant belt of eastward flow, the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, with comparatively weak adjacent westward flows that provide anticyclonic circulation north and cyclonic circulation south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. This image mostly follows from geostrophic estimates from hydrography using a bottom level of no motion for the eastward flow regime which typically yield transports near 170 Sv. Net eastward transport of about 145 Sv for this region results from subtracting those westward flows. This estimate is compatible with the canonical 134 Sv through Drake Passage with augmentation from Indonesian Throughflow (around 10 Sv).A new image is developed from World Ocean Circulation Hydrographic Program sections I8S and I9S. These provide two quasi-meridional crossings of the South Australian Basin and the Australian–Antarctic Basin, with full hydrography and two independent direct-velocity measurements (shipboard and lowered acoustic Doppler current profilers). These velocity measurements indicate that the belt of eastward flow is much stronger, 271 ± 49 Sv, than previously estimated because of the presence of eastward barotropic flow. Substantial recirculations exist adjacent to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current: to the north a 38 ± 30 Sv anticyclonic gyre and to the south a 76 ± 26 Sv cyclonic gyre. The net flow between Australia and Antarctica is estimated as 157 ± 58 Sv, which falls within the expected net transport of 145 Sv.The 38 Sv anticyclonic gyre in the South Australian Basin involves the westward Flinders Current along southern Australia and a substantial 33 Sv Subantarctic Zone recirculation to its south. The cyclonic gyre in the Australian–Antarctic Basin has a substantial 76 Sv westward flow over the continental slope of Antarctica, and 48 ± 6 Sv northward-flowing western boundary current along the Kerguelen Plateau near 57°S. The cyclonic gyre only partially closes within the Australian–Antarctic Basin. It is estimated that 45 Sv bridges westward to the Weddell Gyre through the southern Princess Elizabeth Trough and returns through the northern Princess Elizabeth Trough and the Fawn Trough – where a substantial eastward 38 Sv current is hypothesized. There is evidence that the cyclonic gyre also projects eastward past the Balleny Islands to the Ross Gyre in the South Pacific.The western boundary current along Kerguelen Plateau collides with the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that enters the Australian–Antarctic Basin through the Kerguelen–St. Paul Island Passage, forming an energetic Crozet–Kerguelen Confluence. Strongest filaments in the meandering Crozet-Kerguelen Confluence reach 100 Sv. Dense water in the western boundary current intrudes beneath the densest water of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current; they intensely mix diapycnally to produce a high potential vorticity signal that extends eastward along the southern flank of the Southeast Indian Ridge. Dense water penetrates through the Ridge into the South Australian Basin. Two escape pathways are indicated, the Australian–Antarctic Discordance Zone near 125°E and the Geelvinck Fracture Zone near 85°E. Ultimately, the bottom water delivered to the South Australian Basin passes north to the Perth Basin west of Australia and east to the Tasman Basin.     

Sub-seasonal variability of Luzon Strait Transport in a high resolution global model

The Luzon Strait is the main impact pathway of the Kuroshio on the circulation in South China Sea (SCS). Based on the analysis of the 1997–2007 altimeter data and 2005–2006 output data from a high resolution global HYCOM model, the total Luzon Strait Transport (LST) has remarkable subseasonal oscillations with a typical period of 90 to 120 days, and an average value of 1.9 Sv into SCS. Further spectrum analysis shows that the temporal variability of the LST at different depth is remarkable different. In the upper layer (0–300 m), westward inflow has significant seasonal and subseasonal variability. In the bottom layer (below 1 200 m), eastward outflow exhibits remarkable seasonal variability, while subseasonal variability is also clear. In the intermediate layer, the westward inflow is slightly bigger than the eastward outflow, and both of them have obvious seasonal and subseasonal variability. Because the seasonal variation of westward inflow and eastward outflow is opposite, the total transport of intermediate layer exhibits significant 50–150 days variation, without obvious seasonal signals. The westward Rossby waves with a period of 90 to 120 days in the Western Pacific have very clear correlationship with the Luzon Strait Transport, this indicates that the interaction between these westward Rossby waves and Kuroshio might be the possible mechanism of the subseasonal variation of the LST.     

西北太平洋137°E断面海流的纬向体积输送

利用日本气象厅1967－1989年间沿137°E断面观测到的水文和海流资料，计算了该断面上1°S－34°N的纬向体积输送。纬向体积输送的明显特点是复强冬弱，无论是多年平均的还是个别年份的，不管是东向输送分量还是西向输送分量，该特征都是非常明显的。净输送量有非常大的年际变化，70年代以向西输送为主，80年代则以向东输送为主，峰值出现在ElNio事件前后，二者有一定的关系。     

Propagation of Rossby Waves over Ridges Excited by Interannual Wind Forcing in a Western North Pacific Model

Numerical experiments with a multi-level general circulation model have been performed to investigate basic processes of westward propagation of Rossby waves excited by interannual wind stress forcing in an idealized western North Pacific model with ocean ridges. When the wind forcing with an oscillation period of 3 years is imposed around 180°E and 30°N, far from Japan, barotropic waves excited by the wind can hardly cross the ridges, such as the Izu-Ogasawara Ridge. On the other hand, a large part of the first-mode baroclinic waves are transmitted across the ridges, having net mass transport. The propagation speed of the first-mode baroclinic wave is accelerated (decelerated) when an anticyclonic (cyclonic) circulation is formed at the sea surface, due to a deeper (shallower) upper layer, and to southward (slightly northward) drift of the circulation. Thus, when the anticyclonic circulation is formed on the northern side of the cyclonic one, they propagate almost together. The second-mode baroclinic waves converted from the first-mode ones on the ridges arrive south of Japan, although their effects are small. The resulting volume transport variation of the western boundary current (the Kuroshio) reaches about 60% of the Sverdrup transport variability estimated from the wind stress. These characteristics are common for the interannual forcing case with a longer oscillation period. In the intraseasonal and seasonal forcing cases, on the other hand, the transport variation is much smaller than those in the interannual forcing cases. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The structure of the nearshore branch of the Tsushima current on the shelf off the San'in coast in summer

Current measurements were made at five moored stations over the continental shelf off the San'in coast of the Japan Sea for a month in the summer of 1980 to study the vertical structure of the nearshore branch of the Tsushima Current. The time-mean current for the observational period is 20 to 25 cm sec^–1 eastward near the surface and about 10 cm sec^–1 westward near the sea bottom except at the shallowest station. The time-mean current,i.e. the nearshore branch of the Tsushima Current is mainly due to the baroclinic modes. The currents are less variable in the first half of the observational period, but fluctuate with a several-day period in the latter half. The obtained current data were decomposed into barotropic and baroclinic modes to investigate the detailed characteristics of the fluctuations. In the latter half, the current fluctuations of the two modes with about a 5-day period are well correlated with each other, as the baroclinic mode lagging behind the barotropic mode by 12 hr. The barotropic current fluctuation is correlated to the sea level, with the former leading the latter by about 12 hr. The baroclinic current is correlated to the temperature at the subsurface layer with a shorter time lag.     

Interannual variations in the Hawaiian Lee Countercurrent

The Hawaiian Lee Countercurrent (HLCC) is an eastward surface current flowing against the broad westward flow of the North Pacific subtropical circulation. Analyses of satellite altimeter data over 16 years revealed that the HLCC is characterized by strong interannual variations. The strength and meridional location of the HLCC axis varied significantly year by year. The eastward velocity of the HLCC was higher when the location of the axis was stable. Mechanisms for the interannual variations were explored by analyses of the altimeter data and results from a simple baroclinic model. The interannual variations in the strength of the HLCC did not correlate with those of the wind stress curl (WSC) dipole formed on the leeward side of the Hawaii Islands, although the WSC dipole has been recognized as the generation mechanism of the HLCC. Meridional gradients of the sea surface height anomaly (SSHA) across the HLCC generated by baroclinic Rossby waves propagating westward from the east of the Hawaii Islands were suggested as a possible mechanism for the interannual variations in the HLCC. The spatial patterns in the observed SSHAs were reproduced by a linear baroclinic Rossby wave model forced by wind fields from a numerical weather prediction model. Further analysis of the wind data suggested that positive and negative anomalies of WSC associated with changes in the trade winds in the area east of the Hawaii Islands are a major forcing for generating SSHAs that lead to the HLCC variations with a time lag of about 1 year.     

南海北部东沙岛附近的内潮和余流特征

采用东沙岛附近的一个长达9个月的锚定潜标的观测资料对南海北部的正压潮、内潮和余流情况进行了分析,得到了当地正压潮和内潮的特征。此处正压潮流以全日潮为主,秋、冬季相对较大,春季相对较小;正压余流受海盆尺度环流和地形的限制,在潜标观测期间的秋、冬、春三季基本以偏西向的正压流为主。内潮同正压潮一样,也以全日分潮为主,潮流椭圆随水深发生旋转,在110—120m附近存在内潮非常弱的一层。斜压余流在2009年2—3月比较异常,这是由于在此其间有一个中尺度涡经过。对此潜标数据采用经验正交函数分解的方法进行分析,发现海流的各个主要EOF模态与内波的垂向模态结构有一定的关联。     

海翼水下滑翔机测流应用

水下滑翔机其通过集成生物、化学、物理传感器可以测量如温度、盐度、溶解氧等多种海洋基础水文要素,其利用卫星定位系统获得实际出水速度和理论出水模型获得理论出水速度之差可以计算深度平均流,。本文利用海翼水下滑翔机获得温盐场及卫星定位数据评估深度平均流,结果显示利用温盐场获得深度平均地转流与水下滑翔机获得深度平均流相关系数0.95,表明其流场的一致性,同时根据船载观测ADCP误差分析法估算深度平均流误差约为0.036 m/s。借助深度平均流可以估算绝对地转流,包括正压地转流和斜压地转流。在零动力面的假设下,我们选取了海翼号水下滑翔机在南海的一组实验对流量误差进行了评估。该实验为2019年1月3日-2月16日海翼号水下滑翔机自南向北穿越西沙群岛附近一个中尺度涡观测。观测结果表明,该中尺度涡为冷涡流核,在涡心以南,绝对地转流为东向流,最大流速约为0.48 m/s;涡心以北,绝对地转流为西向流,最大流速约为0.47 m/s,稍弱于南侧。受不均匀时空观测计划影响,本文未对流量做出估计。     

Effects of westward shoaling pycnocline on characteristics and energetics of internal solitary wave in the Luzon Strait by numerical simulations

An internal gravity wave model was employed to simulate the generation of internal solitary waves(ISWs) over a sill by tidal flows. A westward shoaling pycnocline parameterization scheme derived from a three-parameter model was adopted, and then 14 numerical experiments were designed to investigate the influence of the pycnocline thickness, density difference across the pycnocline, westward shoaling isopycnal slope angle and pycnocline depth on the ISWs. When the pycnocline thickness on both sides of the sill increases, the total barotropic kinetic energy, total baroclinic energy and ratio of baroclinic kinetic energy(KE) to available potential energy(APE) decrease, whilst the depth of isopycnal undergoing maximum displacement and ratio of baroclinic energy to barotropic energy increase. When the density difference on both sides of the sill decreases synchronously, the total barotropic kinetic energy, ratio of baroclinic energy to barotropic energy and total baroclinic energy decrease, whilst the depth of isopycnal undergoing maximum displacement increases. When the westward shoaling isopycnal slope angle increases, the total baroclinic energy increases whilst the depth of turning point almost remains unchanged. When the depth of westward shoaling pycnocline on both sides of the sill reduces, the ratio of baroclinic energy to barotropic energy and total baroclinic energy decrease, whilst the total barotropic kinetic energy and ratio of KE to APE increase. When one of the above four different influencing factors was increased by 10% while the other factors keep unchanged, the amplitude of the leading soliton in ISW Packet A was decreased by 2.80%, 7.47%, 3.21% and 6.42% respectively. The density difference across the pycnocline and the pycnocline depth are the two most important factors in affecting the characteristics and energetics of ISWs.