Evaluation of rock mechanical behaviors under uniaxial compression with reference to assessed weathering grades

Summary  A weathering classification for granitic rock materials from southeastern Brazil was framed based on core characteristics. The classification was substantiated by a detailed petrographic study. Indirect assessment of weathering grades by density, ultrasonic and Schmidt hammer index tests was performed. Rebound values due to Schmidt hammer multiple impacts at one representative point were more efficient in predicting weathering grades than averaged single impact rebound values, P-wave velocities and densities. Uniaxial compression tests revealed that a large range of uniaxial compressive strength (214–153 MPa) exists in Grade I category where weathering does not seem to have played any role. It was concluded that variability in occurrences of quartz intragranular cracks and in biotite percentage, distribution and orientation might have played a key role in accelerating or decelerating the failure processes of the Grade I specimens. Deterioration of uniaxial compressive strength and elastic modulus and increase in Poisson’s ratio with increasing weathering intensity could be attributed to alteration of minerals, disruption of rock skeleton and microcrack augmentation. A crude relation between failure modes and weathering grades also emerged. Correspondence: Prof. T. B. Celestino, Universidade de S?o Paulo, S?o Carlos, Brazil     

A correlation between Schmidt hammer rebound numbers with impact strength index,slake durability index and P-wave velocity

The main objective of this study was to establish statistical relationship between Schmidt hammer rebound numbers with impact strength index (ISI), slake durability index (SDI) and P-wave velocity. These are important properties to characterize a rock mass and are being widely used in geological and geotechnical engineering. Due to its importance, Schmidt hammer rebound number is considered as one of the most important property for the determination of other properties, like ISI, SDI and P-wave velocity. Determination of these properties in the laboratory is time consuming and tedious as well as requiring expertise, whereas Schmidt hammer rebound number can be easily obtained on site which in addition is non-destructive. So, in this study, an attempt has been made to determine these index properties in the laboratory and each index property was correlated with Schmidt hammer rebound values. Empirical equations have been developed to predict ISI, SDI and P-wave velocity using rebound values. It was found that Schmidt hammer rebound number shows linear relation with ISI and SDI, whereas exponential relation with P-wave velocity. To check the sensitivity of empirical relations, Student’s t test was done to verify the correlation between rebound values and other rock index properties.     

The Influence of Weathering on the Engineering Properties of Dunites

Weathering processes cause important changes in the engineering properties of rocks. In this study, dunites in the Bursa region in western Turkey were investigated and the changes in engineering properties due to weathering were evaluated. The studies were initiated with field observations including measurement of the characteristics of discontinuities such as spacing, aperture, fill material, roughness, and Schmidt hammer rebound value. Subsequently, laboratory studies were conducted in two stages. The first stage comprised mineralogical, petrographic, and chemical analyses. The second stage included physicomechanical tests to determine specific gravity, unit weights, water absorption, effective porosity, uniaxial compressive strength, P-wave velocity, and slake-durability index. According to these evaluations, the changes in engineering properties were determined to be mostly related to serpentinization at every stage of weathering. The most suitable parameters for characterizing the degree of weathering of the studied dunites are loss-on-ignition values, specific gravity, unit weight, water absorption, and effective porosity.     

Correlation of Schmidt hardness with unconfined compressive strength and Young''s modulus in gypsum from Sivas (Turkey)

This study aims to express the relationships between Schmidt rebound number (N) with unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and Young's modulus (E_t) of the gypsum by empirical equations. As known, the Schmidt hammer has been used worldwide as an index test for a quick rock strength and deformability characterisation due to its rapidity and easiness in execution, simplicity, portability, low cost and nondestructiveness. In this study, gypsum samples have been collected from various locations in the Miocene-aged gypsum of Sivas Basin and tested. The tests include the determination of Schmidt hammer rebound number (N), tangent Young's modulus (E_t) and unconfined compressive strength. Finally, obtained parameters were correlated and regression equations were established among Schmidt hammer rebound hardness, tangent Young's modulus and unconfined compressive strength, presenting high coefficients of correlation. It appears that there is a possibility of estimating unconfined compressive strength and Young's modulus of gypsum, from their Schmidt hammer rebound number by using the proposed empirical relationships of UCS=exp(0.818+0.059N) and E_t=exp(1.146+0.054N). However, the equations must be used only for the gypsum with an acceptable accuracy, especially at the preliminary stage of designing a structure. Finally, by using the obtained Schmidt hammer rebound number from this study, unconfined compressive strength was calculated and compared with the calculated value from different empirical equations proposed by different authors. It can be said that it is impossible to obtain only one relation for all types of the rocks.     

Application of statistical methods for predicting uniaxial compressive strength of limestone rocks using nondestructive tests

Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of an intact rock is an important geotechnical parameter for engineering applications. Using standard laboratory tests to determine UCS is a difficult, expensive and time-consuming task. The main purpose of this study is to develop a general model for predicting UCS of limestone samples and to investigate the relationships among UCS, Schmidt hammer rebound and P-wave velocity (V _P). For this reason, some samples of limestone rocks were collected from the southwestern Iran. In order to evaluate a correlation, the measured and predicted values were examined utilizing simple and multivariate regression techniques. In order to check the performance of the proposed equation, coefficient of determination (R ²), root-mean-square error, mean absolute percentage error, variance accounts for (VAF %), Akaike Information Criterion and performance index were determined. The results showed that the proposed equation by multivariate regression could be applied effectively to predict UCS from its combinations, i.e., ultrasonic pulse velocity and Schmidt hammer hardness. The results also showed that considering high prediction performance of the models developed, they can be used to perform preliminary stages of rock engineering assessments. It was evident that such prediction studies not only provide some practical tools but also contribute to better understanding of the main controlling index parameters of UCS of rocks.     

Investigation into Relationships Between Cerchar Hardness Index and Some Mechanical Properties of Coal Measure Rocks

This paper examines the relationships between Cerchar hardness index (CHI) and some mechanical properties of coal measure rocks in Zonguldak Hard Coal Basin. Some index properties (Cerchar hardness index, Shore scleroscope hardness, in situ Schmidt rebound hardness and point load strength) and strength (uniaxial compressive strength and Brazilian tensile strength) properties of 29 sedimentary rock samples are determined. Then, relationships between (CHI) and strength as well as and some other index values are evaluated using statistical methods. Linear relationships are found between CHI and uniaxial compressive strength, Schmidt rebound hardness. Power relationships are determined between CHI and Shore scleroscope hardness, diametral point load strength, point load strength anisotropy index. Besides, CHI tests are performed by means of bits having tip angles of 99° and 125° and excellent linear relationships are identified between them.     

Performance Prediction of Large-Diameter Circular Saws Based on Surface Hardness Tests for Mugla (Turkey) Marbles

Surface hardness tests such as Shore hardness (SH) and Schmidt hammer rebound hardness (SR) may provide a quick and inexpensive measure of rock hardness, which may be widely used for estimating the mechanical properties of rock material such as strength, sawability, drillability and cuttability. In the marble industry, circular sawing with diamond sawblades constitutes a major cost in the processing. Therefore, several models based on the relations between hourly slab production (P _hs), rock surface hardness (SH and SR) and mineral grain size (S _cr) were developed using the data obtained from field and laboratory measurements on five different marbles quarried in the Mugla Province of Turkey. The models which include surface hardness and crystal size may as well be used for the prediction of sawability (hourly slab production) of carbonate rocks using large-diameter circular saws.     

Estimation of rock physicomechanical properties using hardness methods

The purpose of this study is to investigate the statistical relationship between hardness value and physicomechanical properties of constructional and cover rocks. The definition, measurement of hardness and classification of the rocks used are very important in construction sector. From this point of view, rock hardness is one of the most important parameters for the determination of rock properties. In this study, the determination of hardness and the physicomechanical properties of constructional and cover rocks in Çukurova region was accomplished using various methods in the laboratory. Statistical relations between physicomechanical properties and hardness of rocks were also determined. High correlations were found between the hardness methods (Shore Scleroscope, Schmidt hammer hardness), which are cheap and easy to use, and other physical and mechanical properties. It was found that physicomechanical properties can be estimated using hardness methods and compared with the calculated value from different empirical equations.     

Analysis of Impact Hammer Rebound to Estimate Rock Drillability

Summary ?In this paper, the piston rebound common to both the Schmidt Impact Hammer and down-hole hammer drills has been analyzed and calculated by means of stress wave theory and the energy conservation law. A quantitative relationship between the amount of rebound of the piston and the impact resistance index, or hardness of the rock, has been established. Those analytical results will not only be of benefit in acquiring a deep understanding of the usable range and condition of the Schmidt Impact Hammer, but also provide a definite answer to the feasibility of using the hammer rebound in drills with down-hole hammer tool to carry out a real time measurement of the nature of the formation under the bit.     

Geo-engineering evaluation of Harrat Irbid Basaltic Rocks,Irbid District—North Jordan

The basalt flow in Irbid district covers an area of about 300 km² and forms different shapes: elongated strips, sub-rounded spots, and arc-like outcrops. The basalt flow in the study area has thicknesses ranging from 1 to 30 m. This study is conducted to evaluate the basaltic rocks as a construction material in eight different places of Harrat Irbid. Thirty-six rock cores were prepared from the collected fresh basaltic rock samples to study the physical and mechanical properties. The basaltic rocks in the study area have desirable physical and mechanical properties; the rocks have high apparent specific gravity values (2.70–2.90), bulk specific gravity (2.60–2.84), absorption values (0.33–1.60 %) that indicates the texture is crystalline, porosity (0.22–2.15 %), void ratio (0.002–0.022), water content (0.35–1.08 %), degree of saturation (41–68 %), rebound number of Schmidt hammer hardness test (average 44.10), point load strength(average 11.35 MPa),uniaxial strength (average 106.83 MPa) which is classified as medium strength, basalt uniformity of wear (0.206), and very high durability which is equal to 99.52 % in average, recorded after the second cycle of the test. Based on field observations and physical and mechanical tests, this study confirms that the genesis of basalt in the study area is strongly related to Harrat Al-Shaam basalt. Therefore, this study adds a new area of about 300 km² to the Harrat Al-Shaam area. Additionally, this study strongly recommends the use of the basaltic rocks that have been tested in this study for some industrial applications (e.g., in construction).     

Sound level produced during rock drilling vis-à-vis rock properties

The process of drilling, in general, always produces sound. Though sound is used as a diagnostic tool in mechanical industry, its application in predicting rock property is not much explored. In this study, an attempt has been made to estimate rock properties such as uniaxial compressive strength, Schmidt rebound number and Young's modulus using sound level produced during rotary drilling. For this purpose, a computer numerical controlled vertical milling centre was used for drilling holes with drill bit diameters ranging from 6 to 20 mm with a shank length of 40 mm. Fourteen different rock types were tested. The study was carried out to develop the empirical relations using multiple regression analysis between sound level produced during drilling and rock properties considering the effects of drill bit diameter, drill bit speed and drill bit penetration rate. The F-test was used to check the validity of the developed models. The measured rock property values and the values calculated from the developed regression model are fairly close, indicating that the developed models could be efficiently used with acceptable accuracy in prediction of rock properties.     

Prediction of specific energy of carbonate rock in industrial stones cutting process

Specific energy (SE) measurements of circular saws were conducted on 12 different carbonate rocks. Rock samples were collected from the factories for laboratory tests. Bulk density, apparent porosity, uniaxial compressive strength, Brazilian tensile strength, flexural strength, Schmidt rebound hardness, Shore hardness, point load strength index, Los Angeles abrasion values, and P-wave velocity values were determined in the laboratory. SE and rock properties were evaluated using simple regression analysis and empirical equations were developed. The equations were verified by statistical tests. Regression analysis showed that high correlations exist between SE and uniaxial compressive strength, Shore and Schmidt hardness, bulk density, apparent porosity, and flexural strength. It was found that the SE value of rocks in cutting process was highest for those rocks having the high density, compressive strength, flexural strength, Schmidt and Shore hardness, point load strength index, and P-wave velocity values.     

An Investigation into the Rock Properties Influencing the Strength in Some Granitoid Rocks of KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of rocks is a critical parameter required for most geotechnical projects. However, it is not always possible for direct determination of the parameter. Since determination of such a parameter in the lab is not always cost and time effective, the aim of this study is to assess and estimate the general correlation trend between the UCS and indirect tests or indexes used to estimate the value of UCS for some granitoid rocks in KwaZulu-Natal. These tests include the point load index test, Schmidt hammer rebound, P-wave velocity (V_p) and Brazilian tensile strength (σ_t). Furthermore, it aims to assess the reliability of empirical equations developed towards estimating the value of UCS and propose useful empirical equations to estimate the value of UCS for granitoid rocks. According to the current study, the variations in mineralogy, as well as the textural characteristics of granitoid rocks play an important role in influencing the strength of the rock. Simple regression analyses exhibit good results, with all regression coefficients R² being greater than 0.80, the highest R² of 0.92 being obtained from UCS versus σ_t. Comparison of equations produced in the current study as well as empirical equations derived by several researchers serves as a validation. Also illustrate that the reliability of such empirical equations are dependent on the rock type as well as the type of index tests employed, where variation in rock type and index tests produces different values of UCS. These equations provide a practical tool for estimating the value of UCS, and also gives further insight into the controlling factors of the strength of the granitoid rocks, where the strength of a rock is a multidimensional parameter.     

The role of rock properties in the development of bedrock-incised rills and gullies: Examples from Southern Africa

Physical properties (Schmidt hammer in situ rock strength; degree of weathering; orientation, spacing, width and continuity of joints, bedding planes and faults; groundwater flow) of bedrock-incised rills and gullies were ecamined at selected localities in southern Africa. The resulting data was compared to froms of erosion observed in the field to test for possible influences of rock physical properties on rill and gully development. Bedrock-incised rill erosion occurs at low RMS (Rock Mass Strength) values (40–50). Rills generally do not form where RMS values are high (> 50). Though V-shaped bedrock-incised gullies form in lithologies with a wide range of RMS values (40–69), these values exert strong control on longitudinal morphometry. Future studies should concentrate on establishing a database on properties of erosion forms to aid identification of lithological conditions (e. g. deep regolith) which are potentially susceptible to accelerated erosion.     

A quantitative weathering classification system for yellow travertines

Weathering can cause adverse effects on the physico-mechanical properties of rocks. Although the processes and outcomes of weathering have been investigated for many rock types, the travertine weathering was not paid enough attention as much as the others. However, the unfavorable effects of weathering may arise rapidly due to travertine’s calcium carbonate composition and highly porous texture. Travertine is an important rock type in building stone market and is generally preferred as an exterior façade material. This rock type was also used in many historical buildings and sculptures in the past, and the signs of extensive weathering can be recognized on some of these travertine-made structures. In this study, it was aimed to characterize the effect of weathering on travertine’s structural properties. The yellow travertine from Eskipazar (Karabuk, Turkey) was selected as the study material and the samples with different weathering degrees were collected from site. The chemical, physical and mechanical properties of those samples were determined in laboratory. The physico-mechanical variations with progressive weathering grades were statistically evaluated and a weathering classification based on a rating system was proposed for yellow travertine in rock material scale. The newly developed system may assist in characterizing the degree of weathering for historical structures built by yellow travertine. Additionally, the classification may also guide to further researches on the weathering of different types of travertine.     

Fuzzy and Multiple Regression Modelling for Evaluation of Intact Rock Strength Based on Point Load, Schmidt Hammer and Sonic Velocity

Summary. Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS), considered to be one of the most useful rock properties for mining and civil engineering applications, has been estimated from some index test results by fuzzy and multiple regression modelling. Laboratory investigations including Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS), Point Load Index test (PL), Schmidt Hammer Hardness test (SHR) and Sonic velocity (V_p) test have been carried out on nine different rock types yielding to 305 tested specimens in total. Average values along with the standard deviations (Stdev) as well as Coefficients of variation (CoV) have been calculated for each rock type. Having constructed the Mamdani Fuzzy algorithm, UCS of intact rock samples was then predicted using a data driven fuzzy model. The predicted values derived from fuzzy model were compared with multi-linear statistical model. Comparison proved that the best model predictions have been achieved by fuzzy modelling in contrast to multi-linear statistical modelling. As a result, the developed fuzzy model based on point load, Schmidt hammer and sonic velocity can be used as a tool to predict UCS of intact rocks.     

Predicting the production rate of diamond wire saw using statistical analysis

Performance prediction of diamond wire saws is important in the cost estimation and the planning of the stone quarries. An accurate estimation of sawability helps to make the planning of the rock cutting projects more efficient. In this paper, the performance prediction of diamond wire saws in cutting carbonate rocks was studied on 14 different carbonate rocks in stone quarries located in Iran. Rock samples were collected from the quarries for laboratory tests. Uniaxial compressive strength, Brazilian tensile strength, Schmidt hammer value, and Los Angeles abrasion were determined in the laboratory. Performance prediction was evaluated using simple and multiple regression analyses. Finally, a new model was proposed for predicting the production rate of diamond wire saw. It was concluded that the production rate of carbonate rock using diamond wire saw can reliably be estimated using the developed model.     

循环冻融条件下岩石物理特性的试验研究

新鲜岩石和风化岩石的力学性质有着较大的区别,特别是当岩石的风化程度很深时,岩石的力学性质会明显下降,而在实际工程中又常常将风化岩石作为工程的基础,因此,研究和认识风化岩石的力学特性是有必要的.温度的变化是引起岩石风化的主要原因之一,尤其是循环温度变化更容易使岩石风化.将采自焦作的大理岩和砂岩分成干燥和饱和两组岩样,进行了循环冻融试验来模拟岩石的风化.在冻融前、每10次循环冻融后,量测岩样的质量,利用NM-4B非金属超声检测分析仪对各岩样进行超声纵波无损检测,总共进行50次循环冻融.分析了循环冻融对岩石质量损失的影响并就纵波波速的改变进行了比较,据此归纳出岩石材料受风化影响的物理特性.