Chlorine in basalts from Iceland

Chlorine has a higher solubility in basaltic magmas than other volatiles. A theoretical degassing model predicts that less than 10% of the chlorine originally present in the magma is lost to the atmosphere during surface degassing. This prediction is born out by strong correlation between chlorine and nonvolatile elements in samples from recent volcanic eruptions in Iceland. It is concluded that the chlorine content of subaerial basaltic lavas is proportional to the chlorine content of the magmas. Assuming a roughly constant ratio between chlorine and water in the magmatic gas phase and assuming further that this ratio approximates the $\text{Cl}\text{H}{}_2\text{O}$ ratio in sea water and sediments it is possible to assign each basaltic magma a fixed amount of water. The figures thus obtained (0.3–1.2% H₂O) are identical with previously assumed water contents of basaltic magmas.The implied water contents of the melts are discussed in terms of derivation from hydrous mantle phases. It is concluded that such phases can supply only a fraction of the assumed water content, the rest is derived from an additional volatile source in the mantle. The mantle source giving rise to alkali basalts in Iceland has a lower content of volatiles than the tholeiite source.     

Fluorine in basalts from Iceland

The fluorine content of Icelandic tholeiitic and alkaline basalts matches values found in similar rocks from other areas. Covariation between fluorine and incompatible minor elements such as potassium or phosphorus is found in evolved tholeiites and alkali basalts. Lack of such covariation in primitive olivine tholeiites indicates that fluorine and other incompatible minor and trace elements are not controlled by minerals such as amphibole, mica or apatite in the mantle residue, and that the covariation between these elements in the evolved basalts cannot be inherited from the mantle. Model calculations on rocks from the Langjökull area show that olivine tholeiite suites are, if derived by simple fractional crystallization, enriched in incompatible elements much in excess of the increase due to crystal removal. These observations are taken to indicate that the well documented covariation between fluorine and other incompatible elements is not established until evolution of the basaltic magma has started in crustal holding chambers. The constancy of element ratios and enrichment in excess of what can be accounted for by crystal fractionation or incremental addition of new batches of primitive magmas does indicate (1) mineral control involving amphibole, mica or apatite and (2) addition of fluorine, potassium and phosphorous from an external source. It is argued that this source is the crustal envelope of the holding chamber.     

贵州关岭动物群中的海百合

关岭动物群是由海百合、水生爬行动物、鱼、双壳类、菊石、牙形石等多门类生物组成的动物群,保存在上三叠统瓦窑组近底部.本文仅描述了其中的海百合1属2种:Traumatocrinus kueichouensis Mu, Traumatocrinus guanlingensis sp. nov.,其中Traumatocrinus guanlingensis 为1新种.     

Ca-enrichment in olivines from volcanic rocks

Data are presented on the Ca-content of olivines in a range of volcanic rocks from a variety of suites. These include olivine basalts through to trachytes from Gough, St. Helena and Tristan da Cunha Islands; trachytes from central Victoria, Australia, and a leucitite and phonclitic-tephrite series from Bufumbira, Uganda. In olivine crystals from basaltic lavas the Ca- and Mn-contents are low and Fe shows the most significant zoning from core to rim. In Fe-rich olivines from trachytic differentiates Ca and Mn frequently show more significant variation than Fe. While the Mn-content is proportional to the Fe-content of these olivines, Ca-zoning, in many cases, is unrelated to Fe-content. The marked Ca-enrichment in olivines occurs with the absence of plagioclase in the host lavas. The Ca(Al  Na  K) ratio is shown to be related not only to the Ca-content of the olivines in the lava, but may be used to predict olivine stability in evolved compositions.     

Chemistry of petroleum brines from oil-producing wells in Cretaceous rocks from Southeast Mexico

Brine chemical data obtained from oil wells in Cretaceous oilfields in the Southeastern Basin of Mexico show a complex evolution, with the following main hydrochemical processes: (1) mixing of highly evaporated brines, past the point of halite precipitation with seawater; (2) water/rock interactions between brines and carbonated rocks (dolostones).     

Hardening in porous chalk from precompaction

Knowledge of compactant behavior and the associated subsidence for high porosity carbonate formations is crucial in applications such as enhanced oil recovery. To gain insights into inelastic compaction and failure modes of a porous chalk under different loading histories, triaxial compression experiments were conducted on a high porosity (45 %) chalk, tested using three stress paths: no precompaction (virgin rock), precompacted to 30 MPa, and precompacted to 60 MPa. For the virgin chalk with no precompaction under triaxial compression, the transition from axial splitting to shear fracturing to compaction banding was observed. By precompacting the specimens to mean stresses of 30 and 60 MPa, the brittle failure regime expanded. In 60 MPa precompacted specimens, shear fracture was observed over a larger range of mean stress. Furthermore, precompaction increased the internal friction angle due to permanent volume change, but the cohesion decreased due to damage.     

First diamonds from placers in Primorie

The paper reports the results obtained by the detailed studying of carbonado (the first find in a gold placer in Primorie) and a collection of diamonds that was confiscated in 1937 from a poaching small digger and was kept safe at the Nezametnyi mine (near the village of Vostretsovo), which had developed this placer deposit. In the concentrate from the placer, carbonado is associated with green corundum, various ilmenite, zircon titanian amphiboles and pyroxenes, rutile, anatase, and fragments of subvolcanic biotite picrites. All of these minerals, native aluminum, and tin occur as inclusions in the diamonds. The carbonado from Primorie was determined to be practically identical to this mineral from Brazil, has a porous structure, is characterized by orange luminescence, contains inclusions of Y, Ce, La, Ba, and Sr phosphates, and has an isotopically light composition of its carbon (¹³C from ?25 to ?32‰). Pores of the carbonado aggregates contain clusters of diamond crystals. The collection of diamonds from an unknown source included six gem-quality transparent crystals, one rounded ballas, two cuboctahedral crystals (one of greenish and the other of silver-gray color, both with outer coats), and one black carbonado grain. The data obtained on the mineralogy of the diamonds have demonstrated that they are completely identical to this mineral from kimberlites and lamproites but bear traces of intense dissolution, fragmentation, multiple recrystallization, and graphitization at defects, which are the most widespread in the ballas. One of the crystals was determined to contain inclusions: aggregates of potassic omphacite (0.50 wt % K₂O) and corundum. Ilmenite (containing up to 8 wt % MgO), titanaugite, kaersutite (4 wt % TiO₂, 0.8 wt % K₂O), and churchite (aqueous phosphate) were obtained from the core of the ballas. The titanaugite, kaersutite, and ilmenite were proven to be compositionally analogous to these minerals from picrites occurring near the placer. The carbon isotopic composition δ¹³C of the cores of the single diamond crystals varies from ?6 to ?11‰. The margins of the grains were proved to be enriched in the light carbon isotope (δ¹³C from ?19 to ?21‰). The gem-quality transparent diamond crystals are characterized by blue luminescence, and the color of luminescence in the carbonado varies from orange red in the bulk of the aggregate to yellowish green in its core. The aforementioned transformations of diamonds were likely caused by their transportation in pipes of micaceous picrites of the Jurassic meymechite complex. The carbonado are thought to correspond to the final stage of the metastable recrystallization (in pores, within the temperature range of the rutile-anatase transition) of the original isotopically heavy diamonds under the effect of various oxidizers (H₂O, CO₂, F, and others) and in the presence of catalytically acting REE, Ti, and P. The primary diamond source (kimberlite or lamproite) can be older and more distant from the study area. The complete geological analogy between the study area in Primorie, Kalimantan Island in Indonesia, and West Australia (where no sources of the placers are known) led us to consider the territory of Primorie as promising for exploration for diamondiferous placers.     

花岗伟晶岩石英流体包裹体中的短链羧酸

用离子色谱法研究了某些花岗伟晶岩中石英流体包裹体浸取液的短链送终酸（甲酸、乙酸、丙酸和草酸）和无机阴离子（氟、氯和硫酸根离子）组成,同时进行了矿物包裹体流体的氢和石英的氧同位素成分测定以及显微计温学研究。结果表明,北京延庆大庄科花岗伟晶岩的石英流体包裹体浸取液中含有少量的甲酸和乙酸。花岗岩演化晚期－伟晶岩阶段的高温水热流体中可以存在短链羧酸。     

Indirect crustal contamination: evidence from isotopic and chemical disequilibria in minerals from alkali basalts and nephelinites from northern Tanzania

 Alkali basalts and nephelinites from the volcanic province of northern Tanzania contain pyroxene and nepheline that show evidence for chemical and/or isotopic disequilibria with their host magmas. Olivine, pyroxene, nepheline and plagioclase all appear to be partially xenocrystic in origin. Five whole rock/mineral separate pairs have been analyzed for Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopic compositions. The ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios are distinct by as much as 20.94 (whole rock) vs. 19.10 (clinopyroxene separate). The Sr and Nd isotopic disequilibria vary from insignificant in the case of nepheline, to Δ ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr of 0.0002 and Δɛ_Nd of 0.7 in the case of clinopyroxene. The mineral chemistry of 25 samples indicates the ubiquitous presence of minerals that did not crystallize from a liquid represented by the host rock. The northern Tanzanian magmas are peralkaline and exhibit none of the xenocrystic phases expected from crustal assimilation. The disequilibria cannot be the result of mantle source variations. Rather the xenocrystic phases present appear to have been derived from earlier alkali basaltic rocks or magmas that were contaminated by the crust. Material from this earlier magma was then mixed with batches of magma that subsequently erupted on the surface. Disequilibrium in volcanic rocks has potentially serious consequences for the use of whole rock data to identify source reservoirs. However, mass balance calculations reveal that the ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb isotopic compositions of the erupted lavas were changed by less than 0.25% as a result of this indirect crustal contamination. Received: 15 February 1995 / Accepted: 4 May 1996     

Progression in sulfur isotopic compositions from coal to fly ash: Examples from single-source combustion in Indiana

Sulfur occurs in multiple mineral forms in coals, and its fate in coal combustion is still not well understood. The sulfur isotopic composition of coal from two coal mines in Indiana and fly ash from two power plants that use these coals were studied using geological and geochemical methods. The two coal beds are Middle Pennsylvanian in age; one seam is the low-sulfur (< 1%) Danville Coal Member of the Dugger Formation and the other is the high-sulfur (> 5%) Springfield Coal Member of the Petersburg Formation. Both seams have ash contents of approximately 11%. Fly-ash samples were collected at various points in the ash-collection system in the two plants. The results show notable difference in δ³⁴S for sulfur species within and between the low-sulfur and high-sulfur coal. The δ³⁴S values for all sulfur species are exclusively positive in the low-sulfur Danville coal, whereas the δ³⁴S values for sulfate, pyritic, and organic sulfur are both positive and negative in the high-sulfur Springfield coal. Each coal exhibits a distinct pattern of stratigraphic variation in sulfur isotopic composition. Overall, the δ³⁴S for sulfur species values increase up the section in the low-sulfur Danville coal, whereas they show a decrease up the vertical section in the high-sulfur Springfield coal. Based on the evolution of δ³⁴S for sulfur species, it is suggested that there was influence of seawater on peat swamp, with two marine incursions occurring during peat accumulation of the high-sulfur Springfield coal. Therefore, bacterial sulfate reduction played a key role in converting sulfate into hydrogen sulfide, sulfide minerals, and elemental sulfur. The differences in δ³⁴S between sulfate sulfur and pyritic sulfur is very small between individual benches of both coals, implying that some oxidation occurred during deposition or postdeposition.The δ³⁴S values for fly ash from the high-sulfur Springfield coal (averaging 9.7‰) are greatly enriched in ³⁴S relative to those in the parent coal (averaging 2.2‰). This indicates a fractionation of sulfur isotopes during high-sulfur coal combustion. By contrast, the δ³⁴S values for fly-ash samples from the low-sulfur Danville coal average 10.2‰, only slightly enriched in ³⁴S relative to those from the parent coal (average 7.5‰). The δ³⁴S values for bulk S determined directly from the fly-ash samples show close correspondence with the δ³⁴S values for SO₄^− 2 leached from the fly ash in the low-sulfur coal, suggesting that the transition from pyrite to sulfate occurred via high-temperature oxidation during coal combustion.     

P-T-X Relationships Deduced from Corona Textures in Sapphirine--Spinel--Quartz Assemblages from Paderu, Southern India

The sapphirine (Sa)-spinel (Sp)-quartz (Qz)-bearing rocks fromPaderu occur as lenticular enclaves within the Precambrian khondalite-charnockiteterrane of southern India. In addition these rocks contain orthopyroxene(Opx), sillimanite (Sill), garnet (Gt), cordierite (Cd), biotite,potash feldspar (Kf), plagioclase, and symplectites of Cd-Kf-Qz-Opx.The symplectites may have formed from the breakdown of osumilite.Grain contacts of sapphirine and spinel with quartz are rarelyobserved and the incompatibility with quartz during later stagesis displayed by the development of several types of polymineralicreaction coronas. The coronas in the different rock types A,B, etc. are (minerals listed from core to rim of corona): (A-1) sapphirine-bearing rock type without spinel: Sa-Sill-Opx,Sa-Sill-Cd, Sa-Cd-Opx (A-2) sapphirine and spinel-bearing: Sp-Sa-Sill-Opx-Qz, Sp-Sa-Sill,Sp-Sa-Opx, Sp-Sill-Opx, Sp-Sa-Sill-Gt-Qz, Sa-Sill-Opx, Sp-Sa-Sill-Opx,Sa-Sill-Opx-Gt, Sp-Sa-Opx-Gt, Sp-Sa-Sill-Gt; and (B) spinel-bearingbut sapphirine free: Sp-Sill-Opx, Sp-Sill-Gt, Sp-Cd. Commonlythe coronas in the rock type A 2 and B also contain ilmeno-hematite?corundumin the core in association with spinel. These rock types alsoprovide textural evidence for later crystallization of Cd, Cd+ Sa, and Gt + Qz from Opx+Sill?Qz and Gt+Sill+Qz. Sapphirine is aluminous (near 7(Mg, Fe²⁺)O?9(Al, Fe³⁺)₂O₃?3SiO₂)and contains up to 12?2 wt. per cent iron as FeO. Orthopyroxeneis also aluminous, containing up to 10?4 wt. per cent Al₂O₃.Sapphirine and spinel have relatively high contents of Fe₂O₃.X_Mg in the Fe-Mg minerals increases from rock type B to A2 toA1. A sequence of reactions has been deduced from coronas and otherreaction textures, and from the phase compatibility relationsin the FeO-MgO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂-H₂O system. The P-T-X relationshipsfrom geothermobarometry and petrogenetic grids, viz. µ_Fe2O3vs. µ_FeO and µ_H2O vs. µ_Fe2O3, suggest: (1)a retrograde, mildly decompressive trajectory from 900?60?C/65?0?7kb (core) to 760?50?C/5 ? 0?6 kb (rim); and (2) the observedmineralogy of the coronas and reactions deduced from them aredependent on the relative FeO, Fe₂O₃, and H₂O contents of therocks (µ_FeO3, µ_Fe2O3), and µ_H2O).     

利用树轮密度重建新疆北部5-8月温度变化

利用新疆北部5个采样点的树轮密度年表主序列和新疆北部33个气象站观测气温平均值进行相关分析,结果显示其与新疆北部5-8月平均温度存在很强一致相关性,相关系数为0.667（p<0.001, n=49）。温度重建方程能够解释校准期（1960-2008年）内44.5%的温度变化方差。空间相关分析揭示该温度重建序列能够表征新疆北部过去353 a （1656-2008年）5-8月温度总体变化特征。重建序列揭示新疆北部5-8月平均温度大致经历了6个偏暖阶段,即1656-1664年、1667-1692年、1711-1734年、1804-1832年、1855-1956年、2000-2008年,中间为偏冷阶段,这些阶段中间多个小幅度变化。温度重建结果发现新疆北部温度变化与太阳活动、火山喷发有着紧密联系。温度重建序列与全球海温场的相关分析显示当西风带海区及热带大西洋地区的海温偏高时,研究区气温偏高。与海温、火山喷发和云量变化的相关分析都指示在西风环流的作用下,上述因子对于该地区温度变化有着重要影响。该温度重建序列在低频变化上与北半球气温具有显著正相关,说明中亚地区温度变化与北半球整体温度变化具有较好的一致性。     

Lithium enrichment and isotopic variation in minerals from peridotite xenoliths from northwestern Ethiopian plateau

We report Lithium (Li) concentrations and isotopic compositions for co-existing olivine, orthopyroxene (opx), and clinopyroxene (cpx) mineral separates from depleted and metasomatised peridotite xenoliths hosted by basaltic lavas from northwestern Ethiopian plateau (Gundeweyn area). The peridotites contain five lherzolites and one harzburgite and are variably depleted and enriched in LREE relative to HREE. In both depleted and enriched lherzolites, Li is preferentially incorporated into olivine (2.4-3.3 ppm) compared to opx (1.4-2.1 ppm) and cpx (1.4-2.0 ppm) whereas the Li contents of olivines (5.4 ppm) from an enriched harzburgiteare higher than those of lherzolites. Olivines from the samples show higher Li abundances than normal mantle olivines (1.6-1.9 ppm) indicating the occurrence of Li enrichments through melt-preroditite interaction. The average δ⁷ Li values range from +2.2 to +6.0‰ in olivine, from -0.1 to +2.0‰ in opx and from -4.4 to -0.9‰ in cpx from the lherzolites. The Li isotopic composition (3.5‰) of olivines from harzburgite fall within the range of olivine from lherzolites but the opxs show low in δ⁷Li (-2.0‰). Overall Li isotopic compositions of olivines from the peridotites fall within the range of normal mantle olivine, δ⁷Li values of ~+4±2‰ within uncertainty, reflecting metasomatism (enrichment) of the peridotites by isotopically heavy Li-rich asthenospheric melt. Li isotope zonation is also observed in most peridotite minerals. Majority of olivine grains display isotopically heavy cores and light rims and the reverse case is observed for some olivine grains. Orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene grains show irregular distribution in δ⁷Li. These features of Li isotopic compositions within and between grains in the samples reflect the effect of diffusion-driven isotopic fractionation during meltperidotite interaction and cooling processes.     

从岛弧向裂谷的变迁—来自阿吾拉勒地区火山岩的证据

阿吾拉勒地区早、中石炭世火山岩以碱性系列为主，少部分属钙碱性系列；稀土元素具有岛弧和活动陆缘区橄榄安粗岩和高钾安山岩的特征：微量元素具有大陆型岛弧火山岩的特征。由此证明本区在早、中石炭世处于内弧环境。二叠纪火山岩属碱性系列；稀土元素和微量元素明显有板内碱性玄武岩的特征。     

Ancient depletion signals in lherzolites from forearc region: Constraints from Lu-Hf isotope compositions

The sub-arc mantle that experienced hydrous melting is commonly characterized by refractory geochemical compositions. Nevertheless, minor lherzolites with fertile compositions have also been reported for mantle peridotites from subduction zone. The petrogenesis and mantle source of the lherzolites are still controversial. The New Caledonia ophiolite(Peridotite Nappe) has been regarded as an allochthonous body of forearc lithosphere. This is supported by refractory compositions of its dominant mantle rocks.A few isolated lherzolitic massifs have also been observed in the northern part of New Caledonia.Those lherzolites are compositionally similar to abyssal peridotites, with negligible subduction-related modification. Here, we present new comprehensive geochemical compositions, in particular highprecision Sr-Nd-Hf isotope data, for the lherzolites. The initial¹⁷⁶ Hf/¹⁷⁷ Hf ratios display moderate correlations with sensitive indicators for the extent of melting(i.e., olivine Fo, whole-rock Mg# and Yb contents in clinopyroxene) and whole-rock initial¹⁸⁷ Os/¹⁸⁸ Os ratios. Some samples have ancient radiogenic Hf isotopes and unradiogenic Os isotope compositions, implying the preservation of ancient depletion signals in the lherzolites. The Nd isotope compositions, together with trace elements and mineral micro-textures, suggest that the lherzolites have been overprinted by a recent melt-rock interaction event. The high equilibrium temperatures of the studied samples have been estimated by the twopyroxene REE thermometer, yielding temperatures of 1066–1315 ℃. The lherzolites have more depleted Nd-Hf isotope compositions and higher equilibrium temperatures than the New Caledonia harzburgites.This indicates that the lherzolites may represent the residues of asthenosphere mantle trapped within the forearc region. Our studies on the New Caledonia lherzolites with ancient depletion signals suggest that ancient mantle domains in the convective mantle can be emplaced in forearc region by the upwelling of asthenosphere during the early stage of subduction initiation.     

Building sustainable livelihoods in Laos: untangling farm from non-farm, progress from distress

Laos is one of the poorest countries in the world. The majority of households continue to rely on farming to meet their needs. However the country is also going through an important transition as the market extends into formerly remote rural areas. Drawing on surveys of nine villages in three districts, the paper elucidates how households are managing the transition from subsistence to market. Agriculturally resilient communities with considerable potential are contrasted with villages where the scope for increases in farm output are sharply constrained. The growing role of non-farm activities is highlighted and a distinction drawn between `distress' and `progressive' diversification. The paper argues that diversification is propelled by very different forces and has markedly different implications in livelihood terms. It is also suggested that while general statements can be made about livelihood transitions in the country, and the production and reproduction of poverty, at a household level it is often not possible to `read-off' likely livelihood conditions from a mere assessment of resources.     

Optimal pumping from skimming wells from the Yamuna River flood plain in north India

This report examines the problem involving the pumping of groundwater from a group of 90 existing wells along the banks of the Yamuna River, northwest of Delhi (India), underlain with geologically occurring saline water. It is known that unregulated pumping will lead to upconing of saline water and therefore it is necessary to determine optimal rates and associated well locations (from an existing group of candidate wells that supply drinking water to the city of Delhi) that will minimize the total salinity. The nonlinear, non-convex problem is solved by embedding the calibrated groundwater model within a simulation-optimisation (S/O) framework. Optimisation is accomplished by using simulated annealing (SA), a search algorithm. The computational burden is primarily managed by replacing the numerical model with a surrogate simulator-artificial neural network (ANN). The model is applied to the real system to determine the optimal pumping schedule. The results of the operational model suggest that the skimming wells must be operated from optimal locations such that they are staggered in space and time to obtain the least saline water.     

Complex zoning and resorption in Breunnerite from hall in Tyrol,Austria: Evidence from back-scattered electron microscopy

Summary Back-scattered electron imagery (BSE) coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray elemental analysis was applied to petrographic investigations of recrystallized, anchimetamorphic breunnerites (ferroan magnesites). Analyses of polished thin sections allowed the recognition of a complex zoning pattern, invisible by transmitted or reflected light microscopy. Breunnerite precipitation and replacement started with (Mg_0.90Fe_0.07Ca_0.01Mn_0.02) CO₃ and proceeded towards (Mg_0.73Fe_0.22Ca_0.00Mn_0.05)CO₃. This precipitation sequence was interrupted by at least two major events of reverse zoning (i.e. Fe-rich zones followed by Fe-poor ones). Resorption surfaces in Fe-poor zones are common and prove that short-term fluctuations occurred in the paleobrine composition and/or paleotemperature.

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Nachweis komplexer zonierung und resorption im breunnerit mittels Rückstreuelektronenbilder

Zusammenfassung Breunnerit-Proben von der Typlokalität evaporitischer Magnesitlagerstätten (ehemaliger Salzbergbau Hall in Tirol/Österreich) wurden an Hand von Rückstreuelektronen(BSE)-Bildern und energiedispersiven Röntgenanalysen (EDS) untersucht. Während Durch- und Auflichtmikroskopie lediglich eine zweiphasige Kristallisationsgeschichte erkennen ließen, konnte mittels BSE-Bildern eine detaillierte Rekonstruktion der spätdiagenetischen bzw. anchimetamorphen Breunneritbildung durchgeführt werden. Ein genereller Trend zu Fe-reicheren, häufig oszillierend-zonierter Mischkristalle der Reihe Magnesit-Siderit konnte erkannt werden, der jedoch von mindestens zwei invers zonierten Phasen unterbrochen wurde. Resorptionserscheinungen in den Fe-ärmeren Zonen sind verbreitet und belegen kurzfristige Fluktuationen in der Paläofluid-Zusammensetzung und/oder dessen Paläotemperatur.

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With 5 Figures