Equal-Area Projections of the Triaxial Ellipsoid: First Time Derivation and Implementation of Cylindrical and Azimuthal Projections for Small Solar System Bodies

Many small solar system bodies such as asteroids or small satellites have irregular shapes, often approximated by the reference surface of a triaxial ellipsoid. Map projections for the triaxial ellipsoid are needed to present the incoming data in the form of maps. In this paper the formulae of equal-area cylindrical and azimuthal projections of the triaxial ellipsoid were derived and practically implemented for the first time using as an example the asteroid 253 Mathilde. This paper is the final in a series of papers devoted to all main classes of projections of the triaxial ellipsoid. Before this, the authors obtained equidistant along meridians projection and Jacobi conformal projection for the triaxial ellipsoid.     

等角投影理论和方法综述

等角投影比其它性质投影之研究更为深刻，应用也最为广泛。本文对等角投影的历史发展作了简单回顾，重点对等角投影的数学基础、等角投影的一般公式、等角投影变形量度［８］、具有极值特性的等角投影和探求等角投影的方法等进行了综述。最后提出需要继续研究的若干问题作为等角投影研究展望。     

等角投影理论和方法综述

等角投影与其它性质投影比较之，其研究尤为深刻，应用也最为广泛。本文对等角投影的历史发展作了简单回顾，重点对等角投影的数学基础、等角投影的一般公式、等角投影变形量度、具有极值特性的等角投影和探求等角投影的方法进行了综述。最后提出需要继续研究的若干问题作为等角投影研究展望。     

Generalization of the Lambert–Lagrange projection

The Lagrange projection represents conformally the terrestrial globe within a circle. This is achieved by compressing the latitude and longitude and by applying the new coordinates into the equatorial stereographic projection. The same concept can be generalized to any conformal projection, although the application of this technique to other analytical functions is less known. In this work, the general Lambert–Lagrange projection formula is proposed and the application of the modified coordinates is discussed on projections: stereographic, conformal conic and Gauss–Schreiber. In general, the results are merely a curiosity, except for the case of Gauss–Schreiber, where the use of coordinates with altered scale can be applied in the optimization of conformal projections.     

论保持地球上某特定曲线等长的等角投影

本文着重讨论了保持地球上某一条特定曲线等长的等角投影的存在性特点和数学模型,并在此基础上首次求出了保持等角航线等长的等角投影和斜椭圆柱等角投影。本文所述的理论和方法可做为建立等角空间投影的基础。     

利用算子微分研究投影变形理论

本文利用算子的微分矩阵研究投影变形理论,得到了新的等角、等面积和等距离投影的充要条件,并利用这些条件探求了等角圆锥投影以及等角和等面积圆柱投影的正反解变换。     

契比雪夫投影的研究

根据等角投影理论,推导出了契比雪夫投影公式的具体形式,并对契比雪夫投影在制作中国全图的应用和变形与等角方位投影、等角圆锥投影进行了比较分析.结果表明,契比雪夫投影要优于等角方位投影和等角圆锥投影.     

等角投影变换的常系数公式及其在高斯—克吕格投影换带中的应用

讨论了等角投影变换的常系数一般公式及应用模型,墨卡托投影和高斯－克吕格投影问题的正解变换及其在高斯－克吕格投影换带中的应用,常系数计算公式优于传统的变系数计算公式,是基于计算机的等角投影变换的最佳模型,它在计算机制图,地理数据库,ＧＩＳ等领域中有着广泛的应用。     

极区非奇异高斯投影复变函数表示

摘要：在高斯投影复变函数的基础上,引入复变等角纬度的概念,避免了等量纬度在极点的奇异性。其次,在复变等角纬度的基础上引入复变等角余纬度,并将极点作为高斯投影的坐标原点,建立了极区非奇异高斯投影复变函数表示形式。最后,与传统高斯投影幂级数及以往复变函数表示式相比较,验证了该公式的准确性。新的极区高斯投影表达式克服了传统高斯投影分带的缺陷,使得高斯投影在极区有一个统一的完整的“一体化表示形式”。     

极区不分带高斯投影的正反解表达式

针对传统高斯投影公式在极区难以应用的问题,通过引入等角余纬度及等量纬度的表达式,推导出严密的复数等角余纬度公式,进而得到严密的极区高斯投影正解表达式;借助符号迭代法及指数函数与三角函数间的关系式,推导出对应的极区高斯投影反解表达式;基于极区高斯投影正解表达式,推导出可用于极区的长度比、子午线收敛角公式;最后,以CGCS2000椭球为例,与实数型幂级数高斯投影公式计算的结果进行对比,验证了本文推导公式的正确性。由于本文推导公式不受带宽限制,且可用于整个极区的表示,对于编制极区地图及极区导航具有重要的参考价值。     

兰勃脱等角圆锥投影反解不同算法的解析

在测量与地图制图中,等量纬度求解大地纬度是一种常见的投影反解计算,就该反解问题的几种不同算法进行研究,包括迭代法、等量纬差求解大地纬度的级数展开式及等量纬度求解大地纬度的直接算法。利用Mathematica对后两种算法的计算公式进行了详细推导,给出了其高阶系数展开式,同时对现有算法中存在的问题进行了解析。兰勃脱等角投影算例表明,所推导的公式其计算精度可达(1×10-7)″~(1×10-8)″,完全满足测量与地图投影高精度的要求。     

广西壮族自治区正轴等角割圆锥投影

根据地图投影选择的原则以及广西壮族自治区的地理位置和形状 ,设计了广西壮族自治区正轴等角割圆锥投影。它的两条标准纬线分别为φ1 =2 2°0 0′,φ2 =2 5°30′,投影常数α=0 .40 2 810 6 0 7,K =17195 30 6 .82 ,面积变形在南北边缘仅为 +2‰ ,在制图区域中部为 - 1‰ ,面积变形很小。因此 ,本投影可以作为编制广西壮族自治区地图的数学基础。     

空间Gauss—Kruger投影研究

研究了适合于星下点轨迹是某一经线的卫星图像数据投影选择的空间Gauss—Kruger投影，推导了空间Gauss—Kruger投影公式及其变形情况，并证明了该投影是等角空间投影，最后给出了算例。     

等角投影数值变换的正型多项式方法及其应用分析

数值变换是地图投影变换中常用的方法,鉴于二元n次多项式直接求解法针对性差、计算效率低、稳定性差等缺点,针对等角投影采用正型多项式法进行数值变换,本文着重介绍正型多项式法及其应用。     

等分分层组合投影研究

针对中国地理格网(1°、10°等多级格网系统)的分割方法,设计了一种适合该格网系统的新型地图投影——分层组合投影。从微分几何的观点出发,把地球椭球按等纬度分割成若干层圆台,分别建立每个圆台的投影模型,即可得到一种地图投影。这种投影还可根据格网间隔的不同进行细分,从而发展成为一种适合多分辨率格网模型的动态地图投影。通过对该投影进行变形计算表明,该投影可以保持等角,而且面积和长度变形都很小,特别是在高纬度地区,与Mercator投影相比变形明显减小。     

等角圆锥投影基准纬度非迭代算法

为简化传统正轴等角圆锥投影求解基准纬度时繁琐的迭代算法,引入平均纬度和平均纬差的概念,借助计算机代数系统Mathematica,在平均纬差处级数展开,导出了基于球体模型的正轴等角圆锥投影求解基准纬度的非迭代算法。以全国和不同纬差的省区为例,将其与传统椭球迭代算法进行对比分析。结果表明,推导的基于球体模型的非迭代公式计算基准纬度B0、B1、B2的相对误差最大值为2.011%,长度变形的相对误差小于1×10-6,基本可满足全国以及各省区地图制图的精度要求,从而验证了所研究算法的精确性与实用性。     

Equal Area Map Projection for Irregularly Shaped Objects

Approximately half of the planetary bodies in our solar system imaged by spacecraft have irregular shapes. Since maps are used to record, interpret and display these irregularly shaped bodies, a special map projection, which can display them faithfully, is desirable. Unfortunately, no mathematical approach that permits true conformal or equal-area projections has been developed. In this paper, a novel approach to construct a special equal area map projection for irregularly shaped objects is suggested. Using this innovative approach, equal area map projections for two Martian satellites—Phobos and Deimos are—developed.     

Delaunay Triangulations and Stereographic Projections

After describing Delaunay triangulations of vertices on a sphere and in a plane, we prove that every Delaunay triangulation of vertices on a sphere corresponds to the Delaunay triangulation in the plane of any stereographic projection of the spherical triangle vertices. We then exploit this correspondence to build robust algorithms for Delaunay triangulations in the plane or on the sphere. We also describe a collection of "fisheye" conformal transformations of the sphere that are the composition of one stereographic projection with the inverse of another stereographic projection.     

A new companion for Mercator

The inappropriate use of the Mercator projection has declined but still occasionally occurs. One method of contrasting the Mercator projection is to present an alternative in the form of an equal area projection. The map projection derived here is thus not simply a pretty Christmas tree ornament: it is instead a complement to Mercator’s conformal navigation anamorphose and can be displayed as an alternative. The equations for the new map projection preserve the latitudinal stretching of the Mercator while adjusting the longitudinal spacing. This allows placement of the new map adjacent to that of Mercator. The surface area, while drastically warped, maintains the correct magnitude.     

ON THE LAMBERT CONFORMAL PROJECTION AS APPLIED IN CHINA

Abstract

There are no proper projections for use in geodetic work in a country which has great extensions both in latitude and longitude. For, if a single projection of any kind be applied in such a case, the linear and angular distortions would be so great at the boundary that it is very difficult or even impossible to apply the corrections to them. In order to render it possible for any projection to be applied, the area in question should be divided either into strips bounded by meridians or into zones bounded by parallels. In the former case the Transverse Mercator or Gauss’ projection may be used, while in the latter, the Lambert conformal projection is the most suitable. China is such a country as that mentioned above. It covers an area extending from 16°N. to 53°N. in latitude and of no less than sixty-five degrees in longitude. The problem of choosing a projection for geodetic work depends only on how the area is to be divided. It has been decided by the Central Land Survey of China to adopt the Lambert conformal projection as the basis for the co-ordinate system, and, in order to meet the requirements of geodetic work, the whole country is subdivided into eleven zones bounded by parallels including a spacing of 3½ degrees in latitude-difference. To each of these zones is applied a Lambert projection, properly chosen so as to fit it best. The two standard parallels of the projection are situated at one-seventh of the latitude-difference of the zone from the top and bottom. Thus, the spacing between the standard parallels is 2½ degrees. This gives a maximum value of the scale factor of less than one part in four thousand, thus reducing the distortions of any kind to a reasonable amount. The area between these parallels belongs to the zone proper, while those outside are the overlapping regions with the adjacent ones. All the zones can be extended indefinitely both eastwards and westwards to include the boundaries of the country.