Solving Space Conflicts in Map Generalization: Using a Finite Element Method

A finite element method was developed to handle conflicts during the generalization of maps. The method is holistic and solves conflict problems for the entire map surface simultaneously. When a generalized object changes size, the method immediately causes displacements in surrounding objects. Boundary constraints were introduced which make it possible to maintain the shape of objects, and simultaneously change the size of the objects. An iterative solution procedure for the Finite Element problem was shown to give solutions that better fulfill topological requirements than a direct solution of the problem.     

Use of Graph Theory to Support Map Generalization

In the generalization of a concept, we seek to preserve the essential characteristics and behavior of objects. In map generalization, the appropriate selection and application of procedures (such as merging, exaggeration, and selection) require information at the geometric, attribute, and topological levels. This article highlights the potential of graph theoretic representations in providing the topological information necessary for the efficient and effective application of specific generalization procedures. Besides ease of algebraic manipulation, the principal benefit of a graph theoretic approach is the ability to detect and thus preserve topological characteristics of map objects such as isolation, adjacency, and connectivity. While it is true that topologically based systems have been developed for consistency checking and error detection during editing, this article emphasizes the benefits from a map-generalization perspective. Examples are given with respect to specific generalization procedures and are summarized as a partial set of rules for potential inclusion in a cartographic knowledge-based system.     

Framework for Entropy-based Map Evaluation

The automation of map design is a challenging task for both researchers and designers of spatial information systems. A main problem in automation is the quantification and formalization of the properties of the process to be automated. This article contributes to the formalization of some steps in the processes involved in map design and demonstrates how the Shannon information theory (Shannon and Weaver 1964) can be used to compute an evaluation index of a map, i.e., a parameter which measures the efficiency of the map. Throughout this article, the term "information" is mostly used in a narrow sense and the application of information theory is restricted to the syntactic level of cartographic communication. Information sources for map entropy computations are identified and elaborated on. A special class of map information sources are defined and termed "orthogonal map information sources". Further, a strategy to consider spatial properties of a map in entropy computations is presented. At the end of the article, some examples demonstrate how the channel capacity and other entropy related measures can be computed and used to control automated processes for map design or map generalization.     

道路数据缩编更新的自动综合方法研究

缩编更新是当前GIS多尺度数据库更新的重要技术途径之一。针对我国国家1∶5万数据库更新工程的实际需求,研究分析了用较大比例尺新道路数据缩编更新较小比例尺道路数据的总体思路,提出了基于网眼密度的道路选取和顾及层次分析的道路匹配方法,实现了道路数据缩编更新的自动综合处理,并在1∶5万数据更新实践中进行了实验验证。     

Terrain Generalization with Multi-scale Pyramids Constrained by Curvature

This paper presents a method for terrain generalization using Laplacian pyramids. The method pre-processes digital terrain for generating cartographically generalized 3D maps. Map authors can attenuated or amplify selected frequency bands of the terrain with a graphical interface imitating an audio equalizer. Ridge lines and valley lines are localized by curvature indices, and their characteristic shapes are preserved or emphasized using additional sets of equalizer controls. Frequency bands are adjusted separately for the foreground and the background to remove visually disturbing terrain detail in the background. This is relevant for 3D maps in central perspective projection that considerably compresses distant terrain features. The proposed generalization method was implemented in Terrain Equalizer, a free and open-source application providing a graphical interface with interactive 3D previews (available at http://www.terraincartography.com/). Using this application, disturbing high frequency details can be easily removed and major mountain forms can be accentuated. The level of generalization can be adjusted seamlessly from the foreground to the background of the 3D map. Topographic break lines, such as ridge or valley lines, are successfully preserved, which is important for conveying the characteristic shape of a generalized terrain.     

Variable-scale Topological Data Structures Suitable for Progressive Data Transfer: The GAP-face Tree and GAP-edge Forest

This paper presents the first data structure for a variable scale representation of an area partitioning without redundancy of geometry. At the highest level of detail, the areas are represented using a topological structure based on faces and edges; there is no redundancy of geometry in this structure as the shared boundaries (edges) between neighbor areas are stored only once. Each edge is represented by a Binary Line Generalization (BLG)-tree, which enables selection of the proper representation for a given scale. Further, there is also no geometry redundancy between the different levels of detail. An edge at a higher importance level (less detail) does not contain copies of the lower-level edges or coordinates (more detail), but it is represented by efficiently combining their corresponding BLG trees. Which edges have to be combined follows from the generalization computation, and this is stored in a data structure. This data structure turns out to be a set of trees, which will be called the (Generalized Area Partitioning) GAP-edge forest. With regard to faces, the generalization result can be captured in a single tree structure for the parent-child relationships—the GAP face-tree. At the client side there are no geometric computations necessary to compute the polygon representations of the faces, merely following the topological references is sufficient. Finally, the presented data structure is also suitable for progressive transfer of vector maps, assuming that the client maintains a local copy of the GAP-face tree and the GAP-edge forest.     

土地利用现状图中数据缩编的质量控制分析

1∶50000土地利用现状图是土地利用研究的基础数据之一,编制土地利用现状图对制定河南省社会和经济中长期发展规划、土地利用总体规划和城乡规划,全面加强土地管理,促进全省经济发展起着非常重要的作用.本文结合1∶50000土地利用现状要素数据缩编工程质量检查工作实践,总结了质量检查的内容、技术要求及检查方法,提高了作业质量和效率.     

大比例尺地形图街区式居民地分层综合模型与实现

本文在提出了一种在较大比例尺地形图上,将街区式居民地划分成行政区层、街道层、街区层和建筑物层,然后以自上而下的方法逐层独立进行综合的数据及算法模型,并通过一个典型的试验区完成了该模型的机上实现。     

电子地图的数据结构与模型

电子地图是集地图表达、数据处理、地图分析为一体的新型地图产品，其数据组织形式直接关系到电子地图的质量与性能。本文对几种数据结构和模型进行了分析、比较，并探讨了它们在电子地图领域的应用前景。     

Exploration of Information Theoretic Arguments for the Limited Amount of Information in a Map

From the application of information theory capacity limits of maps are derived and some cartographic rules are formulated—based on theoretical models and perception studies. The perception study shows that for a relief map with coloured height intervals the channel capacity, as defined in information theory, is reached at seven～eight height classes. Generally, the length of a visual variable may be characterized by the channel capacity of the map. This theoretical study shows how increased attention should be paid to perceptual separation as the number of categories increases. The requirement becomes more and more crucial as the number of categories exceeds five. The principle of group visibility is formulated and demonstrated. Group visibility considers the visibility of groups of map features and may be utilized in a visual search for geographical patterns. The quantitative measures presented offers computational methods to control group visibility for example in an interactive visualization system.     

3维地图符号的数据结构研究

如何用计算机的1维存储空间存放由0维、1维、2维、3维等空间目标的集合所定义的形体，是几何造型中最基本的问题。文中针对传统地图符号表现方法的局限性，分析了国内外3维地图符号的研究现状，针对3维地图符号设计的特点和要求采用参数函数和边界数据模型作为建立3维地图符号的数据结构。     

地图数据结构的简要分析

各种地图要素转换成计算机的可读形式称为地图数据,地图数据结构指构成地图内容诸要素的数据集之间相互关系和数据记录的编排组织方式;它也是电脑制图的核心内容,是必须理解和掌握的。本文简要介绍地图数据结构的主要类型,即矢量数据结构和栅格数据结构,以及二者的区别与联系。     

地形图综合缩编与数据入库——以增城市1:5000地形图数据为例

1∶5 000地形图缩编是在MGE的Microstation平台上利用MicroStation Basic工具二次开发地形图综合缩编软件实现的,利用现有1∶2 000地形图数据特点,按照建库和制图数据一体化生产的技术路线,通过批处理综合程序结合机助交互式数据判断以及数据预处理转换等技术实现综合缩编。     

基于制图综合知识的空间数据检查

基于制图综合知识的空间数据检查是GIS和制图综合中迫切需要研究的问题。首先,分析数据检查的重要性和制图综合知识在数据检查中的作用。其次,对制图综合知识的归纳进行阐述:在分析国内外研究的基础上,定义一套基于模糊型知识和精确型知识为基础的知识分类模式;并据此提出一种制图综合知识的结构化描述方式;然后提出知识属性的概念,阐述知识属性在知识中扮演的重要作用,定义知识属性的详细指标。第三,进行基于制图综合知识的数据检查:在对数据进行重要性排序的基础上,提出基于模糊型知识的人机协同的数据检查方法,和基于精确型知识的自动数据检查方法,并给出详细的数据检查程序流程。最后,给出相应的例子。从数据检查的结果来看,提出的知识归纳方法能够满足当前制图综合的多种需求,基于知识的数据检查方法能够为进一步实施制图综合提供强有力的信息和依据。     

The Roles of Web Feature and Web Map Services in Real-time Geospatial Data Sharing for Time-critical Applications

Many time-critical applications such as emergency response, location-based services, and real time traffic management need instant access to diverse data to make quick decisions and take instantaneous actions. However, two issues block time-critical applications to quickly acquire and integrate spatial data over the web: (1) the heterogeneity of existing GIS systems, and (2) the file-level data sharing systems over the web. This research examines current open standards, protocols, and technologies capable of solving the two issues for real-time spatial data sharing over the web. Focusing on investigating the role of Web Feature Services (WFS) and Web Map Services (WMS), this research has developed a solution for real-time geospatial data sharing at the feature level over the web. A prototype has been implemented to query, extract, create, delete, update, and map geographic features stored in web-accessible OGC (Open Geospatial Consortium) simple feature datastores for transportation emergency applications. The prototype results show that the OGC WFS and WMS play important roles in real-time geospatial data sharing and exchange from heterogeneous sources at the feature level for time-critical applications. The WFS and WMS eliminate time-consuming data translation and facilitate reuse of existing geospatial data over the web. Several issues related to the solution are also discussed in the paper.     

New Imaging Materials Assist in Map Drafting

Image transfer materials, of which Copyproof CPFab, Image-N-Transfer, and Chromatec are examples, can be used to accomplish various drafting tasks. They are useful for both prmted maps and the single copy display map, color as well as black and white.     

用BLOB类型存取二进制地图数据

随着测量技术的发展，卫星、遥感、航空摄影等新手段不断引入，以地图为基础的地理数据得以迅速增长，如何更好地存储和管理海量的地理数据显得日益重要。文中就矢量地图数据的存储问题进行了一些探讨，介绍了以二进制大对象BLOB存取矢量地图数据的方法，以Oracle 9i为例，分析了以BLOB存取矢量二进制数据的基本过程和若干问题。     

多普勒雷达降水反演及其与改进的区域气候模式RIEMS的同化研究

本博士论文在前人构建的陆面水文过程模型TOPX和区域气候模式RIEMS的耦合模式的框架基础上,针对耦合模式中RIEMS对降水和蒸散发的模拟精度较低,RIEMS和TOPX模式之间尺度不匹配等几个核心问题进行了深入细致的研究:对天气雷达资料的定量估测降水方面的研究获得了对沂沭河流域最佳的Z-R关系,并通过雷达雨量计联合校正法得到较高精度的面降雨量;采用集合卡尔曼滤波同化算法对雷达反演的面雨量及区域气候模式RIEMS的降水输出进行了数据同化方案研究,获得了更好的降水模拟效果;在RIEMS和水文模型TOPX构成的耦合模型中加入同化方案,实现了流域降水的实例模拟研究,结果表明使用同化方案明显改善了水文模拟效果。     

Symbolization of Map Projection Distortion: A Review

One of the most fundamental steps in map creation is the transformation of information from the surface of a globe onto a flat map. Mapmakers have developed and used hundreds of different map projections over the past 2,000 years, yet there is no perfect choice because every map projection uniquely alters some aspect of space during the transformation process. Detailed information about the type, amount, and distribution of distortion is essential for choosing the best projection for a particular map or data set. The distortion inherent in projections can be measured and symbolized much like any other map variable. Methods for symbolizing map projection distortion are reviewed, with each method described and illustrated in graphical form. The symbolization methods are collected under ten separate headings organized from simple to more complex in terms of interpretation. Most of these methods are highly effective at communicating distortion, yet they are rarely used beyond textbooks and technical documentation. Map projections and the distortions they carry need to be better understood by spatial data developers, distributors, and users. Map distortion should be carried along with map data as confidence layers, and the easily accessible distortion displays should be available to help in the selection of map projections. There is a suitably wide array of symbolization methods to match any need from basic education to research.