Assessment of Simulated Cognitive Maps: The Influence of Prior Knowledge from Cartographic Maps

Real cognitive maps encoded by humans are difficult to study using experimental methods because they are a product of complex processes whose content and timing cannot easily be known or controlled. This paper assesses the value of using neural network model simulations for investigating cognitive maps. The study simulated the learning of mapped city locations in South Carolina from reference sites in the three primary regions of the state using Kohonen self-organizing maps. The learning performances of models were considered based on available prior knowledge. Bi-dimensional regression analyses were used to assess the congruity of the simulated cognitive maps with a cartographic map and with sketch maps produced by human subjects. Error analyses indicated differences between central and peripheral reference sites. The cities known by subjects living at a central location were more evenly distributed in space and associated with significantly smaller errors. Models that learned combined state boundary and interstate highway information as prior knowledge or simultaneously with city locations consistently produced the best simulation results. The results indicated simulated cognitive maps could be used effectively to study the acquisition of spatial knowledge.     

Searching for Boundaries on Maps: Cognitive Processes

The purpose of this research was to examine the interaction between color and the visual processes people use to search choropleth maps. Two experiments were performed in which subjects searched hypothetical choropleth maps displayed on a cathode-ray tube to determine whether a particular (target) boundary formed by two adjacent polygons filled with different colors was present. In experiment 1, the four pairs of colors used to form the target boundaries were red-blue, green-yellow, green-magenta, and cyan-magenta. In experiment 2, red-green, blue-yellow, red-orange, and cyan-orange were the color pairs used toform the target boundaries. The target boundary colors, target-background discriminability, target boundary location, and the number and types of boundaries on the maps had a significant effect on search time. The results of both experiments indicated that subjects were using a parallel search process followed by a serial search process as described by Cave and Wolfe's (1990) guided search theory. The relative mean search times for the various colored target boundaries was best explained by the opponent process theory.     

Hexagon Mosaic Maps for Display of Univariate and Bivariate Geographical Data

This paper presents concepts that motivate the use of hexagon mosaic maps and hexagon-based ray-glyph maps. The phrase "hexagon mosaic map" refers to maps that use hexagons to tessellate major areas of a map, such as land masses. Hexagon mosaic maps are similar to color-contour (isarithm) maps and show broad regional patterns. The ray glyph, an oriented line segment with a dot at the base, provides a convenient symbol for representing information within a hexagon cell. Ray angle encodes the local estimate for the hexagon. A simple extension adds upper- and lower-confidence bounds as a shaded arc bounded by two rays. Another extension, the bivariate ray glyph, provides a continuous representation for showing the local correlation of two variables. The theme of integrating statistical analysis and cartographic methods appears throughout this paper. Example maps show statistical summaries of acidic deposition data for the eastern United States. These maps provide useful templates for a wide range of statistical summarization and exploration tasks. Correspondingly, the concepts in this paper address the incorporation of statistical information, visual appeal, representational accuracy, and map interpretation.     

An Automated Method of Scale Selection and Sheet Configuration for Multiple Sheet Census Maps with Insets

In order to create a useful map, the cartographer must select a scale at which the map reader can distinguish features shown on the map and read their labels. However, the choice of scale for a paper map is also constrained by the size of the map sheet and by the cost of working with a large number of sheets. When the feature density pattern allows, space can be conserved by making the map at more than one scale: a small scale suitable for most of the map, while dense features are shown on inset maps at larger scales. Creating inset maps requires the cartographer to make a series of complex, interrelated decisions regarding the most effective overall sheet configuration, which is dependent upon the scale chosen for the main map and how the inset maps are created. The Census Automated Map Production System (CAMPS) applies cartographic logic and density analysis to make these decisions in a fully automated mapping environment.     

Gradation as a Communication Device in Area-Class Maps

This paper proposes a methodology to assess gradation as a cartographic tool for communicating information in area-class maps. The communication model is used as a theoretical foundation, suggesting distinction between errors that occur in encoding and decoding of geographic information. The proposed methodology begins with the determination of a target level of encoding error. Map alternatives are constrained to achieve this target, with gradation considered as one variable in the map production process. The result is a series of maps of equal encoding accuracy but varying in the degree of gradation represented. The individual maps of the series can then be evaluated in terms of decoding accuracy. The methodology is demonstrated by producing a series of alternative forest region maps of New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey based on U.S. Forest Service data on tree genus distributions. The series ranges from a 4-class graded area-class map to a 13-class crisp map. The results show gradation to be a viable alternative to the proliferation of map classes as a means of cartographic communication.     

Computer-produced Unclassed Bivariate Choropleth Maps

Many cartographers subscribe to the view that unclassed choropleth maps and multivariate choropleth maps exceed map readers' abilities to process visual information. This paper examines recent evidence which controverts both of these beliefs and discusses applications of a computer program, BICHOR, designed to produce unclassed bivariate choropleth maps interactively on a line plotter or CRT. The maps utilize crossed-line symbolism and putatively overcome both the quantization error inherent in conventionally classed choroplethic displays and the perceptual difficulties associated with color-encoding schemes used for earlier bivariate maps.     

Cartographic Design and Production in the Internet Era: The Example of Tourist Web Maps

Abstract

Some, but not all, branches of the tourist industry make heavy use of maps. The industry has discovered the marketing potential of the Internet but in many cases has not yet fully exploited the extra potential of web maps compared to the traditional paper maps. Web maps can up-to-date tourist information very well but they have to be carefully designed to take account of the limitations of the medium. To be most effective, web maps should be basically simple and convey sufficient information interactively, on request. The map and symbol design should convey intuitively where and how this interaction can take place. This paper summarizes the typical faults found in tourist web map design and provides suggestions on good design practice.     

Change Blindness in Animated Choropleth Maps: An Empirical Study

Animated choropleth maps enable cartographers to visualize time-series data in a way that congruently depicts change over time. However, users have difficulty apprehending information encoded within these displays, and often fail to detect important changes between adjacent scenes. Failures of visual experience, such as change blindness, threaten the effectiveness of dynamic geovisual displays, in which several important changes can occur simultaneously throughout the display. Animated choropleth maps require viewers not only to notice changes but also understand symbolic meanings encoded in rapid transitions between scenes. Graphic interpolation between key frames, also known as “in-betweening” or “tweening”, smoothes transitions and lengthens the duration of the transition between scenes in a dynamic sequence. Previous cartographic literature suggests tweening could be a potential solution for change blindness in the cartographic context. This article examines this issue of change blindness in the cartographic context and reports on a human subjects investigation designed to evaluate the influence of cartographic design variables on map readers' change detection abilities. Our results indicate that 1) map readers have difficulty detecting changes in animated choropleth maps, 2) map readers over-estimate their own change detection abilities, and 3) tweening influences the legibility of change in animated choropleth maps.     

IndoorTubes A Novel Design for Indoor Maps

Efforts within cartography on indoor maps have previously not received a lot of attention. Work that has been carried out on indoor maps often focus on map design very similar to an architectural style (Klippel et al. 2006; Ciavarella and Paternò 2004). In some cases the design has been of a more novel character where approaches with augmented and virtual realities have been carried out (Radoczky 2007; Müller et al. 2006). Common to these approaches is the depiction of one floor per map. As well, the primary user task is often solely personal navigation. In this article I present an innovative approach to indoor maps. The design is directly inspired by underground tube maps first developed by Harry Beck (Garland 1994) and today a common design for public transport maps. The main advantages of the map design are its simplicity and the possibility of including all floors in one map view. This allows the map user to easier comprehend the structure of the building without using several maps, as commonly needed with today's indoor map designs. I present several different map styles each intended to satisfy different user groups and tasks depending on the user's familiarity with the environment. In addition the article motivate for new application areas suitable for indoor maps, especially large hospitals. I hypothesize that the design proposed in this article leans very well to displaying real-time dynamic geospatial information, such as patients, staff, equipment and room availability within hospitals. Due to the early phase of the work presented here I outline the needed further work and possibilities of technological platforms as well as evaluations necessary in order for the design to gain acceptance and success.     

A Visual Art Interface to an Embedded Sequence of Maps

The role of art in relation to maps is being reappraised on the basis of a perceived ability to depict aspects of a place that maps alone cannot. Many as opposed to one perspective on a place communicates more fully the essence of that place (with art as a valuable source of qualitative geospatial data) and so maps and art should be presented in the same visualization package. This paper outlines the development and implementation of an interface where a scanned painting forms the mode of access to an embedded sequence of maps. The interface is used to represent the history and habitat extent of the kea (alpine parrot) in New Zealand from pre human colonization times through to their present, limited range to a speculation on their future habitat. The painting and the map (in what has been termed in the literature as an anti-map / map combination) are in their own separate layers and joined by an interactive link. The interface harnesses the ability of visual art to aggregate multiple themes, locations and times into a single cohesive image, coupled with map composition and symbology that complements the painting. The ability to contain many temporal instances is close to the comic strip frame (and instances of Renaissance art) in particular, with, in this case, an implicit time frame from left to right on the painting. The use of an artistic image minimizes use of text to depict events, due to the visual and narrative power of the painting.     

基于陕西省的乡镇界线标准画法探究

通过分析陕西省乡镇界线的分布特点,根据影响乡镇界线在地图上表示的诸多因素,研究乡镇界线地图的标准规范的制图表达方式,定义地图上各类要素表示的制图表达原则,提出乡镇界线在地图上的表达方式.解决了基于乡镇界线地图制图的标准画法,满足有关乡镇界线地图的制作要求.     

地图中国界线与经纬线关系表示方法探究

国界线是地图中的重要内容。经纬线不仅用于确定位置和方向,也用于国家之间划分国界线。地图上绘制国界线不仅要遵循相关法规、条约及标准,还应当正确处理好国界线与经纬线的关系。本文通过介绍地图中绘制国界线的依据,重点梳理国界线与经纬线关系容易出错的几个重点区域,对相关地图编制和地图审查部门起到一定的借鉴作用。     

Epistemology of Geopolitical Atlases from the 1980s to the Early 2000s

Abstract

Since the early 1980s, we have seen a new influx of numerous geopolitical atlases. They have been produced to meet society's implicit need to fix the boundaries of international issues and the relationships of force between the various powers. These atlases clearly express established ideologies and allow us to determine various trends of thought; messages which the authors wish us to take on board by studying cartographic themes. This is the approach we will be taking in this article.

In this paper, we aim to show the epistemological development of geopolitical atlases. The first part of the article gives the general outline of the epistemological development of geopolitical atlases, in which two main periods stand out. The first corresponds with the 1980s, which can be described as a realist decade. The state was a geopolitical player that could not be overlooked within a bipolar world; maps showing conflicts between the two major powers and thematic maps showing an ideological clash between them are typical of the period. The second period, corresponding with the 1990s, begins with the fall of the regimes in the Soviet bloc. This period can be described as having a neo-realist approach, where the threat from the East had moved to terrorism and drug trafficking. The atlases follow the geopolitical development of the world and describe international structural changes. In conclusion, the paper will return to the important educational and informative role of atlases and their effects on the ideas they are able to disseminate amongst the population.     

Frequency Histogram Legend in the Choropleth Map: A Substitute to Traditional Legends

This article presents the use of the frequency histogram legend (FHL) as a substitute to traditional legends in both classed and unclassed choropleth maps. Great variation in the size of mapping units can hinder readers' ability to comprehend statistical distributions from a choropleth map. Replacing conventional legends with FHL can aid readers in their understanding of spatial as well as statistical distributions of the mapped data simultaneously. A customized mapping application was designed in ArcInfo 9.0 to test the use of FHL in both classed and unclassed choropleth maps. Frequency histogram legends were tested on different types of statistical distributions. Although the comparison of the results shows that the FHL works best for a Gaussian or close to a Gaussian distribution for eight or fewer classes, the customized application permits users to generate choropleth maps with frequency histogram legends for any type of statistical distribution with any number of classes. The analysis reveals that readers' background in statistics helped them to effectively utilize and interpret frequency histogram legends in the choropleth maps.     

A Painting Technique for Single-Copy Color-Map Generation

A technique used for well over a decade by the U.S. Geological Survey to prepare maps for scanning and printing can be adapted for other uses as well, resulting in excellent-quality single display copies and facilitating color-scheme experimentation for maps. Materials needed for and steps in the process are detailed here.     

Lithological mapping and fuzzy set theory: Automated extraction of lithological boundary from ASTER imagery by template matching and spatial accuracy assessment

Lithological boundaries provide information useful for activities such as mineral and hydrocarbon exploration, water resource surveys, and natural hazard evaluation. Automated detection of lithological boundaries reduces bias inherent in expert interpretation of boundaries and thus improves the reliability of lithological mapping. The Rotation Variant Template Matching (RTM) algorithm was applied to ASTER imagery to detect pre-defined lithological boundaries. Templates incorporating the mineral combinations gypsum–calcite and calcite–illite were designed to detect boundaries between evaporites, marly limestone, and sandstone. The RTM algorithm successfully detected lithological boundaries by rotating the templates over the ASTER imagery. The accuracy of the detected boundaries was spatially assessed using fuzzy set theory. Boundaries from a published geological map and boundaries interpreted from a stereo pair of aerial photos by five experts were used as references for assessing the accuracy. A confidence region unifying spatial errors was defined for the geological map and stereo-pair interpretation to provide boundary zones from these references. The correspondence between detected boundaries and the boundary zones of the aerial photo was better than between detected boundaries and boundary zones of the geological map.     

Effects of Animations in Zooming and Panning Operations on Web maps: A Web-based Experiment

Abstract

The presentation of graphics and maps on the Internet has led to the development of several new techniques. The use of dynamics and animations in maps has increased, and new types of applications are emerging frequently. Recently, several map providers on the web have introduced zooming in maps as an animated operation. In this paper, we look closer into how the animated zoom is perceived by participants in an experiment, and compare these observations with a corresponding test where the map scale is changed in more abrupt steps. The results indicate significant preference for the animated zoom. The experiment itself is carried out through the World Wide Web and all the participants made their contribution from their own computers.     

Animated Maps of Aggregate Data: Conceptual and Practical Problems

Predictions of the 1960s about the computer's potential to change cartography are finally being fulfilled. Dynamic maps for vehicle navigation, interactive cartographic/statistical tools, and map animation are being investigated actively. As these new environments for mapping become available, we must reevaluate past questions about transformations from reality to data and data to map. In this paper, we consider these transformation questions in the context of statistical map animation. The issues discussed were raised in producing a “map movie” depicting the spread of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) over time. Jenks' data model concept is used as the basis for a typology of data models representing phenomena typically depicted by enumeration unit data. The typology is then used to evaluate symbolization decisions for AIDS incidence maps. Implications for symbol selection imposed by dynamic rather than static maps are considered, as are technical issues involved in producing the animation on a microcomputer platform. A hybrid symbolization method that we have termed the “chorodot” is suggested as a way to meet the constraints on symbolization imposed by animation and to represent the appropriate data model for AIDS incidence.     

Unclassed Animated Choropleth Maps

Abstract

The potential of unclassed animated choropleth maps as a solution to false patterns of geographic change arising from data classification is investigated. Old concerns about unclassed choropleth maps may be mitigated through map interactivity that offers four advantages over traditional data legends, and previous insights from testing static choropleth maps do not necessarily translate to animated cartography. Data from user testing revealed unclassed animated choropleth maps neither help nor hurt the ability of map readers to understand patterns of geographic change. However, the unclassed map (1) appeared 'less jumpy' to participants and was perceived to run at a slower pace (despite running at the same number of frames per second), and (2) subtle geographic shifts (e.g., seasonal unemployment cycles) were more readily noticed on the unclassed maps. Preliminary results also suggest classed data emphasise stability over time – while their unclassed counterparts improve our ability to see changes. This paper also outlines animated simultaneous contrast as a new perceptual issue in the creation of animated choropleth maps.