MAPIT: A Computer Program for Production of Flow Maps,Dot Maps and Graduated Symbol Maps

Abstract

This paper describes some results of an attempt to design and to write a general purpose computer program which can be used to produce quality maps of discrete data by the person who has had no training in computer programming. In the first section, the variety of the maps this program can produce is illustrated; in the second section, some of the principles involved in such map production are discussed; in the third section, the input arrangements for using the program are described and, finally, the role of such programs in teaching and research in the years ahead is discussed.     

大高差变化区域GNSS高程转换模型与方法的优选

在地形起伏变化大的山区,基于GNSS技术实测的大地高和高精度几何水准实测的正常高数据,将线状拟合、平面拟合、曲面拟合等多种GNSS高程转换数学模型分别应用到GNSS/水准拟合法和EGM2008模型的"移去-恢复"法中,讨论了各模型方法在山区的高程转换应用情况及转换精度。利用Alltrans EGM2008 Calculator计算得到的地球重力场模型高程异常值,由于综合考虑了高程异常的几何和物理特性,使EGM2008模型的解算精度高于GNSS/水准拟合法精度。并通过实例证明,EGM2008"移去-恢复"法的曲面拟合模型适用于大高差山区cm级GNSS测高。     

关于大比例尺地形图高程精度检验公式的探讨

介绍了的地形图验收依据,不同依据给定的高程精度验收的计算公式,文章分析了根据真误差计算中误差的公式,文章分析了国标、地标公式理论来源,目前地形图的高程测绘及检验高程的获得,探讨最佳公式。     

数字高程模型DEM精度研究

用不同地貌类型地区的实验数据对数字高程模型(规则格网DEM)的格网间距与中误差(RMSE)、平均高程、剖面曲率的关系进行研究,采用比较分析的方法,得到格网间距与中误差的数学模型,可以用通式:Y=A BX CX2表示,并且把地形因子(平均高程、剖面曲率)作为自变量,进一步分析通式中3个系数与地形因子的关系,发现两个地形因子与系数函数关系比较相似,并得到Y=A BX CX2 DX3的数学模型。由验证结果表明,所得模型效果良好。     

山西省高精度数字高程模型建设方案设计与实现

结合山西省高精度数字高程模型建设项目,详细介绍了利用机载激光雷达进行大面积数据获取的技术方案和数据处理关键技术,为进行大面积机载激光雷达数据获取和处理积累了丰富的经验,该项目的建成,满足了省内各类不同行业用户以及科学研究机构对我省精密地表数据的需求。     

Assessment of Shuttle Radar Topography Mission Elevation Data Based on Topographic Maps in Turkey

Depending on scale, topographic maps depicting the shape of the land surfaces of the Earth are produced from different data sources. National topographic maps at a scale of 1:25 000 (25K maps) produced by General Command of Mapping are used as the base map set in Turkey. This map set, which consists of approximately 5500 sheets, covers the whole country and is produced using photogrammetric methods. Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) created from these maps are also available. Recently, another data source, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) interferometric data, has become more important than those produced by conventional methods. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) contains elevation data with 3 arc-second resolution and 16 m absolute height error (90 percent confidence level). These data are freely available via the Internet for approximately 80 percent of the Earth's land mass. In this study, SRTM DEM was compared with DEM derived from 25K topographic maps for different parts of Turkey. The study areas, each covering four neighboring 25K maps, and having an area of approximately 600 km², were chosen to represent various terrain characteristics. For the comparison, DEMs created from the 25K maps were obtained and organized as files for each map sheet in vector format, containing the digitized contour lines. From these data, DEMs in the resolution of 3 arc-second were created (25K-DEM), in the same structure as the SRTM DEM, allowing the 25K-DEMs and the SRTM DEM to be compared directly. The results show that the agreement of SRTM DEM to the 25K-DEM is within about 13 m, which is less than the SRTM's targeted error of 16 m. The spatial distribution of the height differences between SRTM-DEM and the 25K-DEM and correlation analysis show that the differences were mainly related to the topography of the test areas. In some areas, local height shifts were determined.     

全球高分辨率数字高程模型研究进展与展望

简要介绍了数字高程模型（digital elevation model,DEM）的起源与定义,根据4种不同的观测平台分类介绍了DEM数据获取方法,给出目前国际上发布的高分辨率全球DEM的主要性质和特点。重点介绍了9大类全球DEM,分析了DEM质量评估相关的评定方法和精度指标。论述了DEM在地质灾害监测、海岸带脆弱性分析方面的应用,以美国地质勘探局和德国航空太空中心正在开展的DEM项目为例,讨论了高精度、高分辨率全球同质DEM和地形测深高程模型的最新需求,最后总结展望全球高分辨率DEM的发展趋势。     

Improving the Elevation Accuracy of Digital Elevation Models: A Comparison of Some Error Detection Procedures

The widespread availability of powerful desktop computers, easy‐to‐use software tools and geographic datasets have raised the quality problem of input data to be a crucial one. Even though accuracy has been a concern in every serious application, there are no general tools for its improvement. Some particular ones exist, however, and some results are presented here for a particular case of quantitative raster data: Digital Elevation Models (DEM). Two procedures designed to detect anomalous values (also named gross errors, outliers or blunders) in DEMs, but valid also for other quantitative raster datasets, were tested. A DEM with elevations varying from 181 to 1044 m derived from SPOT data has been used as a contaminated sample, while a manually derived DEM obtained from aerial photogrammetry was regarded as the ground truth to allow a direct performance comparison for the methods with real errors. It is assumed that a “better” value can be measured or obtained through some methodology once an outlier location is suggested. The options are different depending upon the user (DEM producers might go to the original data and make another reading, while end users might use interpolation). Both choices were considered in this experiment. Preliminary results show that for the available dataset, the accuracy might be improved to some extent with very little effort. Effort is defined here as the percentage of points suggested by the methodology in relation with its total number: thus 100 per cent effort implies that all points have been checked. The method proposed by López (1997) gave poor results, because it has been designed for errors with low spatial autocorrelation (which is not the case here). A modified version was then designed and compared with the method proposed by Felicísimo (1994). The three procedures can be applied both for error detection during DEM generation and by end users, and they might be of use for other quantitative raster data. The choice of the best methodology is different depending on the effort involved. The conclusions have been derived for a photogrammetrically obtained DEM; other production procedures might lead to different results.     

The Flat-Area Issue in Digital Elevation Models and Its Consequences for Rainfall-Runoff Modeling

When analyzing a digital elevation model, flat areas originating from the standard pit removal procedure can affect the characterization of flow paths and subsequent hydrologic or hydraulic analysis. In the present work, six case-study areas were selected, and two different methodologies for rainfall-runoff modeling were investigated within the framework of the Width Function Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (WFIUH). One methodology is "standard," while the other is an "advanced" approach. The methodologies basically differ with regard to pit and flatarea treatment and flow-routing determination. In both approaches continuous rainfall-runoff modeling was applied and annual maximum hydrographs were compared. The results show that when using the "standard" approach a shorter WFIUH and a resultant hydrograph characterized by higher peak discharge and shorter duration are obtained.     

Evaluation of Information Loss in Digital Elevation Models With Digital Photogrammetric Systems

Information loss is caused when a surface is sampled with a finite interval, such as in the production of a digital elevation model (DEM). This information loss can become the dominant part of the error in a DEM. The ability to quantify information loss enables guidance to be provided for an appropriate choice of grid interval and better accuracy assessment for the DEM. With the use of digital photogrammetric systems, evaluation of information loss has become much easier. This paper describes three methods of evaluating information loss. An example is given of the method which is most appropriate for use with a digital photogrammetric system, based on rock cliff surface data and the VirtuoZo system.     

数字高程模型(DEM)和数字线划图(DLG)的坐标转换方法

介绍数字高程模型(DEM)、数字线划图(DLG)由1980西安坐标系向2000国家大地坐标系的高精度、无缝隙转换方法,可以满足各种比例尺、任意范围数字产品的坐标转换.利用实例数据通过大量试验分析、研究,证明该转换方法是正确、可行的.     

利用极化合成孔径雷达干涉测量技术生成DEM

极化合成孔径雷达干涉测量(PolInSAR)是目前雷达遥感的前沿领域之一,它综合了极化和雷达干涉技术(InSAR)的特点.文中应用极化干涉相干最优化技术处理了Amazon雨林地区的真实L波段PALSAR全极化数据,得到该地区的数字高程模型(DEM).与常规的单极化InSAR技术进行对比,证明了利用极化干涉技术可以显著提...     

Accuracy assessment of GPS navigation augmented by SAR and LiDAR-derived Digital Elevation Models

Remotely sensed Digital Elevation Models (DEM) can be used to augment a standalone Global Positioning System (GPS) by adding an extra range observation which measures the distance to the Earth centre. This method so called height aiding can reduce the number of GPS satellites required to get a 3D position fix from four to three and hence improve the performance of the GPS navigation algorithm in terms of accuracy, reliability and availability. Up until now, the accuracy of height aided GPS navigation using higher resolution Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)-derived elevation data has not been fully evaluated in a broad spectrum of navigation scenarios. This article provides a robust and accurate analysis on how much range error is introduced by height aiding using 5 m spacing SAR and 1 m spacing LiDAR-derived DEMs under in-car and personal navigation situations. Based on the experimental results obtained from both dynamic and static tests, suggestions have been made on what level of vertical and positional accuracy can be achieved as well as the related DEM quality issues for navigation purposes.     

Inundation Extent and Flood Frequency Mapping Using LANDSAT Imagery and Digital Elevation Models

We modeled the extent of inundation around Poyang Lake, China using 13 Landsat images and two digital elevation models (DEMs). Boundaries of the observed inundation extents were (a) labeled with lake-level measurements taken at a representative hydrological station and (b) interpolated to create a Water Line DEM (WL-DEM) that was used to map inundation frequency. A 30 m contour-based DEM produced slightly better results than the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission DEM, but neither DEM was accurate for medium and low lake levels. The WL-DEM exhibited improved accuracy at medium lake levels, but had relatively high errors at low lake levels.     

奇异平差模型的粗差检验与可靠性理论

本文推导了奇异平差模型参数估计的一般公式,构造了粗差检验的统计量,通过假设检验研究了相应的可靠性理论,并借助于一个实例阐述了这一理论的应用。     

月球重力场模型质量及可靠性的分析评定

月球重力场模型球谐函数展开式的核心是一组正常化位系数。介绍了当前几种主要月球重力场模型建立所采用的探测器跟踪数据的特点;分析了重力场信号随模型轨道高度、阶次变化的特性。同时以考拉(Kau la)准则为标准比较了各模型位系数的阶方差曲线与考拉曲线的吻合情况。从信噪比的角度出发,提出了对模型进行可靠性分析的方法。通过计算对比各模型的信噪比来反映其空间频谱信号和频谱误差的强度关系,从而对模型质量和可靠性做出分析评定。     

月球重力场模型质量及可靠性的分析评定

月球重力场模型球谐函数展开式的核心是一组正常化位系数。介绍了当前几种主要月球重力场模型建立所采用的探测器跟踪数据的特点;分析了重力场信号随模型轨道高度、阶次变化的特性。同时以考拉（Kaula）准则为标准比较了各模型位系数的阶方差曲线与考拉曲线的吻合情况。从信噪比的角度出发,提出了对模型进行可靠性分析的方法。通过计算对比各模型的信噪比来反映其空间频谱信号和频谱误差的强度关系,从而对模型质量和可靠性做出分析评定。     

在高海拔地区Saastamoinen与Hopfield模型推算水汽含量差异的研究

详细分析了在高海拔地区利用Saastamoinen和Hopfield两种模型推算水汽含量时产生差异的原因,并通过对高程不同的测站上实测数据的分析和研究,给出了Hopfield模型的修正项。     

基于双三次Hermite插值方法的DEM误差传播分析

针对由双三次Hermite插值所生成的DEM数据,提出了一种新的传播误差估计方法。传播误差估计模型所适用的空间对象包括:线、不规则三角网(TIN)和规则格网等DEM数据。基于统计学中的误差传播定律,推导出了由非线性插值方法所生成DEM的误差传播公式。最后,将由双三次Hermite插值方法所生成DEM的传播误差与先前研究中采用线性插值所生成DEM的传播误差进行对比分析,由此可以更加全面地掌握通过线性插值或者非线性插值方法所生成DEM的误差传播规律。该成果可用于指导对实际生产DEM产品过程中插值方法的选择。