Stability analysis of a fire-loaded shallow tunnel by means of a thermo-hydro-chemo-mechanical model and discontinuity layout optimization

When subjected to fire loading, shallow tunnels may experience loss of stability. This may result in large deformations and ultimately in local collapse of such structures. High temperature has a great negative influence on tunnels, not only because of thermal-induced mechanical degradation of the heated lining but also because of thermal spalling in consequence of the build-up of pore pressure. Thermal spalling causes quick loss of lining sections. Mechanical degradation sole can be simulated by thermo-mechanical models, while consideration of mechanical degradation and spalling requires thermo-hydro-chemo-mechanical (THCM) models and a spalling criterion. After simulation of both processes, the stability of a tunnel structure can be assessed by means of limit analysis. In this work, at first, a fully coupled THCM model is developed. Then, by using a “stress vs strength” criterion and a boundary shifting strategy, the coupled mechanical degradation and thermal spalling processes are captured, providing time-dependent and space-dependent information of the heated lining. Finally, a novel numerical approach, termed discontinuity layout optimization (DLO), is applied to quantify the stability of the tunnel structure with the help of a factor of safety. The proposed numerical procedure is used to conduct numerical studies with, as well as without, consideration of spalling. The results show that spalling has a great impact on the stability of the tunnel. It reduces the thickness of the lining section and accelerates the heating process of the inner concrete.     

深部硬岩剪切边界下应力诱发片帮的机制研究

深部工程开挖现场发现硬岩的剪切破坏过程对地下工程稳定性具有重要影响。深埋硬岩隧洞边墙处片帮或板裂主要为压致拉裂的结果,可通过室内单轴压缩试验来模拟;而拱肩和底角处的片帮或板裂多数是在剪切边界下形成的,需通过室内完整硬岩直剪试验来再现。针对不同类型硬岩压致拉裂型片帮,已进行了相当深入的研究,但对完整硬岩剪切边界下应力诱发型片帮的直接研究还存在着不足。为了深入研究深埋硬岩隧洞片帮或板裂的形成机制,采用FLAC3D软件模拟隧洞不同位置处围岩受开挖扰动的应力调整过程,根据中国锦屏地下实验室二期工程区域的片帮统计结果,将深埋硬岩隧洞片帮划分为压致拉裂型和剪切边界应力诱发型两类,提出剪切边界应力诱发型片帮形成过程的概念模型;利用完整大理岩设计了不同正应力下压剪破裂到剪切滑移的连续性直剪试验,试样典型片帮破坏结果验证了概念模型的合理性。     

Modeling concrete exposed to high temperature: Impact of dehydration and retention curves on moisture migration

High‐performance concrete is a widely used building material for tunnels, high‐rise buildings, nuclear plants etc. When these structures are exposed to fire, high‐performance concrete is prone to spalling. Moisture migration is believed to be one of the processes directly related to this phenomenon. In this paper, moisture profiles measured experimentally from neutron radiography on heated concrete are compared with results from a numerical model implemented in the finite element code Cast3M. The water loss measured experimentally, and the numerical results suggest that the commonly used constitutive laws for dehydration and water retention curves need to be reconsidered. The influence of these constitutive laws on the moisture migration is investigated. The dehydration constitutive law plays an important role on the dehydration front but has negligible effect on the moisture accumulation behind this front. By contrast, the water retention curves do not influence the dehydration front but affect the quantity and location of water condensation. The role of the permeability is also discussed.     

Influence of Unloading Rate on the Strainburst Characteristics of Beishan Granite Under True-Triaxial Unloading Conditions

Rockburst is a sudden and violent failure of rocks and it often occurs in hard rocks in highly stressed ground. Strainburst is classified as one type of rockburst and it often occurs in rocks near or at the excavation boundary. Deep insight into the strainburst phenomenon is essential for safe underground construction at depth. In this paper, an experimental laboratory study on the strainburst behavior of Beishan granite is presented. Based on in-situ stress measurement data from the Beishan area in China, a series of tests under different unloading rates were performed to investigate the strainburst process using a true-triaxial strainburst test system which was equipped with an acoustic emission (AE) monitoring system. In addition, a high-speed video camera was used to record and visualize the initiation and ejection of rock fragments as well as the sudden dynamic failure (strainburst) of the test samples. AE characteristics associated with the cumulative energy and frequency–amplitude distributions were analyzed. Characteristics of the microscopic structure of a fragment generated from one test were observed using a scanning electron microscope. The experimental results indicate that the degree of violence during failure and the associated AE energy release in the strainburst process are dependent on the unloading rate. When the unloading rate is high, the rock is prone to strainburst. On the other hand, as the unloading rate decreases, the failure mode changes from strainburst to spalling. In addition, the cumulative AE energy is not sensitive to unloading rates greater than 0.05 MPa/s. When the unloading rate is less than 0.05 MPa/s, the cumulative AE energy shows a marked decreasing trend during rock failure.     

特厚煤层大采高综放工作面煤壁片帮机制分析

针对特厚煤层大采高工作面,将超前支承压力作用的煤体分为破裂区、塑性区和弹性区。考虑支架护帮阻力等因素,建立了支承压力作用的煤体变形破坏及煤壁片帮分析力学模型。通过摩尔-库仑准则和非关联弹塑性分析,推导出了煤壁水平位移量及破裂区和塑性区半径解析表达式,分析了影响煤壁片帮的主要因素。理论结果与现场实测结果误差仅为15.6%,验证了模型的正确性。研究表明,随支承压力集中系数的增大、机采高度的增加以及支架护帮阻力的减小,煤壁水平位移量明显增大,煤壁片帮程度严重。工程实践表明,提高支架工作阻力,减缓煤壁处压力,控制合理采高以及增大支架护帮阻力,可有效缓解大采高综放工作面煤壁片帮程度。     

黄土边坡盐蚀剥落病害特征调查及其水盐迁移规律研究

通过现场调查及室内含水量和易溶盐分析试验开展了黄土边坡盐蚀剥落病害特征的研究。结果表明:盐蚀剥落病害按剥落形态可分为条带状、片块状及凹腔状盐蚀剥落;按地层岩性可分为马兰黄土、离石黄土、古土壤层及人工夯实黄土盐蚀剥落。试样含水量随着距边坡表层垂直深度增加而增大,含盐量随着距边坡表层垂直深度增加迅速降低且很快趋于稳定;阴离子CO₃2-和HCO₃-含量随距边坡表层垂直深度增加无明显变化规律,Cl-和SO₄2-含量随距边坡表层垂直深度增加迅速减小且很快趋于稳定;阳离子K+、Mg2+、Ca2+含量随距边坡表层垂直深度增加无明显变化规律,Na+随距边坡表层垂直深度增加迅速减小且趋于稳定;阴离子以SO₄2-和Cl-为主,阳离子以Na+为主,边坡表层易溶盐主要成分为Na₂SO₄和NaCl。边坡表层富集易溶盐Na₂SO₄和NaCl,在气候变化条件下的反复溶解和结晶作用是黄土边坡盐蚀剥落病害的主要诱因。     

The mechanics of spall fracture in rock and concrete

Spalling is a wave-induced dynamic fracture phenomenon. The waves can be either one: elastic, elasto-plastic, or shock waves. From a continuum mechanics point of view, fracture mechanics and wave propagation form the main ingredients in the formation of spalls. Recently, however, micro-structural effects have become important in the initial stages of spall formation in a variety of engineering materials ranging from metals to rock and concrete. From a structural geology point of view, the rock mass cannot be modelled as a continuum. In this case, a discontinuum approach has to be taken where the individual features of the rock mass such as joints and faults need to be taken into account. From an application point of view, spallation is important where rapid loading by explosives, impact, or energy deposition, occurs. The range of applications stretches from blasting in mining engineering to damage prevention to structures under explosive excitation.

This contribution offers a multi-faceted and multi-disciplinary approach to the study of spalling with special attention to analytical and experimental work. The reader is assumed to be somewhat familiar with the basics of continuum mechanics, fracture mechanics, and propagation of elastic, plastic and shock waves. The application to rock and concrete will show the effects of structural geological discontinuities such as open and closed joints - and to some degree also faulting - in rock, as well as the micro-structure of concrete on the (shock) wave field.

Extensive use will be made of time-space diagrams which proved very useful in practical applications to blasting problems [Rossmanith, H.P., 2002, The use of Lagrange diagrams in precise initiation blasting. Part I: two interacting blastholes, Fragblast 6, 104-136].     

黄土边坡剥落病害的发育特征及其发育程度评价

黄土边坡剥落病害影响黄土边坡的坡面稳定及环保美观.以黄延高速公路黄土路堑边坡剥落病害为背景,采用现场调查结合理论分析的方法,研究了黄土边坡剥落病害的发育特征;将发育特征与可拓工程方法相结合,实现了黄土边坡剥落病害发育程度的评价.研究结果表明:(1)黄土中节理裂隙分布密度大于6条·m-1时,极易发生剥落,小于2条·m-1...     

Considerations of the discontinuous deformation analysis on wave propagation problems

In rock engineering, the damage criteria of the rock mass under dynamic loads are generally governed by the threshold values of wave amplitudes, such as the peak particle velocity and the peak particle acceleration. Therefore, the prediction of wave attenuation across fractured rock mass is important on assessing the stability and damage of rock mass under dynamic loads. This paper aims to investigate the applications of the discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA) for modeling wave propagation problems in rock mass. Parametric studies are carried out to obtain an insight into the influencing factors on the accuracy of wave propagations, in terms of the block size, the boundary condition and the incident wave frequency. The reflected and transmitted waves from the interface between two materials are also numerically simulated. To study the tensile failure induced by the reflected wave, the spalling phenomena are modeled under various loading frequencies. The numerical results show that the DDA is capable of modeling the wave propagation in jointed rock mass with a good accuracy. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

冲击荷载作用下层裂问题研究

材料破坏准则的采用是制约动态层裂机制研究的主要因素之一。采用一维弹脆性平面波理论,运用累积损伤破坏准则对因爆炸或冲击引起的层裂问题进行分析。解析了三角形脉冲荷载在考虑升压时间时第1次层裂厚度的变化规律。研究表明：考虑升压时间时得出的层裂片厚度比不考虑升压时间时要小,运用累积损伤破坏准则计算出的层裂片厚度比最大拉应力瞬时断裂准则的计算值大。分析结果对研究地冲击荷载作用下地下洞室的震塌破坏有一定的参考价值。     

深部硬岩矩形隧洞围岩板裂破坏的试验模拟研究

为了深入认识深部硬岩矩形隧洞围岩板裂破坏的发生机制,利用花岗岩材料加工含预制矩形孔洞（40 mm×40 mm）的立方体试样（100 mm×100 mm×100 mm）,并采用TRW?3000岩石真三轴电液伺服诱变试验机进行了模拟试验研究。模拟试验中首先以深部1 000 m的地应力条件作为初始加载应力状态,保持孔洞径向和轴向的水平向应力不变,然后在竖直向加载直至孔洞两侧洞壁围岩发生破坏,并保证试样整体始终处于稳定状态。加载过程中利用岩样内部结构破坏实时视频监控系统,进行全程的实时记录和监测。试验结果表明,在竖直向为最大主应力和水平轴向为中间主应力的情况下,矩形孔洞两侧洞壁围岩整体发生明显的板裂破坏,破坏区域呈对称状,而顶板和底板始终保持稳定状态。侧壁围岩的破坏方向平行于竖直向,呈现典型的张拉板裂状破坏特征。整个破坏过程划分为平静期阶段、洞壁两侧上下肩角处颗粒弹射阶段、侧壁围岩裂纹扩展阶段和裂纹贯通板裂破坏阶段。当进入到裂纹贯通板裂破坏阶段时,无论是加载还是保载过程,板裂破坏都可能持续发展。试验过程中,试样洞壁两侧围岩的板裂破坏整体上呈现静态破坏模式,而且破坏区域沿水平方向逐渐向洞壁深部发展,最终形成沿轴向的贯穿型对称弧形槽。     

Stress Concentration at the Bottom of a Borehole and its Effect on Borehole Breakout Formation

Summary Stress concentration at the bottom of a borehole due to the corners with small radius of curvature in an axial section and its effect on the azimuth of breakout was studied. To this end, a 3-D finite element analysis was conducted and the stress around the borehole was examined for boreholes arbitrarily oriented to three principal axes of remote stress. Results show that, in the case of high strength rock, compressive failure resulting in spalling of a borehole may occur only at the bottom of the borehole. The spalling can occur continuously with drilling, and results in continuous spalling with depth, i.e., a breakout. This type of breakout tends to form on one side of the borehole and its orientation is approximately perpendicular to the orientation of standard breakouts, inferred from the stress concentration due to the cylindrical shape of the borehole.     

人工抽水引起土洞扩展条件的分析

土洞的形成与扩展是产生覆盖型岩溶地面塌陷的前提条件之一。为研究人工抽水引起的岩溶地面塌陷的机理,用解析法分析了土洞扩展的条件,提出了剥落力的概念,认为土洞的扩展条件是剥落力大于土体抗拉强度。土洞周边不同的点,受抽水引起的剥落力是不同的。随着土洞的不断扩大,剥落力增大。当土洞一旦开始向外围扩展,由于剥落力越来越大,土洞呈现发展趋势。     

Dilation and Spalling in Axially Compressed Beams Subjected to Bending

Laboratory testing of rectangular beams using a synthetic rock was used to investigate the onset of dilation and spalling. The beams are axially compressed and subjected to 4-point bending to provide non-uniform compressive stresses. The maximum tangential stress occurs at the top of the beam and rapidly decreases with distance from the top of the beam. This stress distribution was used to simulate the maximum tangential stress distribution found around circular excavations. The results showed using this beam test configuration that the onset of dilation based on beam displacement and visually observed spalling began at approximately the same stress level. Discrete element numerical analyses (particle flow code) were used to evaluate the stress path at various locations in the beams. The analyses revealed that spalling and dilation in the beams occurred well below the peak strength failure envelope determined from conventional laboratory tests. The findings suggest that the onset of dilation in laboratory tests appears to be a good indicator for assessing the stress magnitudes required to initiate spalling.     

A surface instability detection apparatus

Summary A surface instability detection apparatus for investigating axial splitting and spalling phenomena in rocks and rock-like materials is described. The apparatus simulates the conditions under which these phenomena occur and allows one to accurately measure them. Experimental results from tests on Berea sandstone are presented where the successive formation of spalling fractures was monitored with an acoustic emission system and the location of the seismic events was mapped. The test results show the potential for benchmark tests in determining the spalling tendency and characteristics of different rocks.     

Micromorphology: as a tool in the detection, analyses and interpretation of (glacial) sediments and man-made materials

Micromorphology can be used in studying a wide range of earth materials. Within the last decades, the technique has been applied across an ever-widening range of sediments and materials. Micromorphology provides insight into sediments from various geological environments. Microstructures and the relationship of matrix (plasma) to skeleton grains offer an understanding of deposition, deformation, and postdepositional diagenesis. Examples from Germany and Antarctica illustrate the value of micromorphology providing a robust method for microstratigraphic interpretation. Micromorphology has proved invaluable in detecting toxic substances with sediments. Likewise, micromorphological examination of concrete has revealed new clues to processes of concrete ‘setting’ and diagenesis.     

板裂体组合条件下岩爆倾向性分析

针对已有突变理论仅对单块板裂岩体进行分析的局限性,提出将板裂化岩体作为整体进行研究,考虑了劈裂岩体间的水平应力,改进了突变理论模型在岩爆分析中的应用,并分别计算对比了单块岩板及板裂岩板组合在准静力及动力扰动两种条件下的岩爆倾向性。研究结果表明,准静力条件下单块岩板突变特征值?变化趋势平缓,而组合岩体由于等效抗弯刚度较大,? 急剧增大;准静力条件下岩板组合的岩爆深度明显大于单块岩板时,岩爆深度达到0.76 m;随岩板厚度增加,突变特征值?逐渐增大,不再满足岩爆的充分条件,施加竖向扰动应力即可重新满足突变条件,所需外界扰动应力由几兆帕增大至几十兆帕。     

Comparative carbon emission assessments of recycled and natural aggregate concrete:Environmental influence of cement content

This work examines the environmental and geochemical impact of recycled aggregate concrete produc-tion with properties representative for structural applications.The environmental influence of cement content,aggregate production,transportation,and waste landfilling is analysed by undertaking a life cycle assessment and considering a life cycle inventory largely specific for the region.To obtain a detailed insight into the optimum life cycle parameters,a sensitivity study is carried out in which supplementary cementitious materials,different values of natural-to-recycled aggregate content ratio and case-specific transportation distances were considered.The results show that carbon emissions were between 323 and 332 kgCO2e per cubic metre of cement only natural aggregate concrete.These values can be reduced by up to 17％by replacing 25％of the cement with fly ash.By contrast,carbon emissions can increase when natural coarse aggregates are replaced by recycled aggregates in proportions of 50％and 100％,and trans-portation is not included in analysis.However,the concrete with 50％recycled aggregate presented lower increase,only 0.3％and 3.4％for normal and high strength concrete,respectively.In some cases,the rel-ative contribution of transportation to the total carbon emissions increased when cement was replaced by fly ash in proportions of 25％,and case-specific transportation distances were considered.In absolute values,the concrete mixes with 100％recycled aggregates and 25％fly ash had lower carbon emissions than concrete with cement and natural aggregates only.Higher environmental benefits can be obtained when the transportation distances of fly ash are relatively short(15-25 km)and the cement replacement by fly ash is equal or higher than 25％,considering that the mechanical properties are adequate for prac-tical application.The observations from this paper show that recycled aggregate concrete with strength characteristics representative for structural members can have lower carbon emissions than conventional concrete,recommending them as an alternative to achieving global sustainability standards in construction.     

基于围岩片帮形迹的宏观地应力估计方法探讨

基于深部地下勘探隧洞围岩应力型片帮破坏是岩体初始地应力作用的最直观结果的认识,建立借助围岩片帮形迹分析工程区岩体宏观地应力的估计方法。该方法通过对比分析地应力作用下多个交叉隧洞围岩的片帮空间分布特征和烈度强弱关系,建立岩体3个初始主应力的空间大小和方向关系;采用片帮劈裂纹方位角统计获得岩体最大主应力方向;依据片帮的应力门槛值和起裂应力门槛值估算出3个主应力量值。现场实测地应力数据和多工况数值计算分析都有力地表明,借助该分析方法获得的白鹤滩右岸厂址区域三维地应力是科学、合理的,这也为深入认识工程区地应力特征提供了一条新思路