多种震级及其巧妙之处

震级是对地震大小的量度。在地震活动性分析等实际的工作中,人们通常认为 “一个地震只有一个震级” 。很多人会有这样的疑惑:为何使用多种震级？震级为何不能统一？在地震监测工作中,为何震级之间不能相互转换？为何同一地震的不同震级会有差别？多种震级该如何使用？本文讲述了震级的测定原理、震级的巧妙之处,并对上述等11个问题进行讨论,以便于科研人员和管理人员在实际工作中,准确地测定震级,正确地使用震级。      

矩震级及其计算

简要叙述地震震级概念的提出及其历史发展。文中指出,矩震级M_W是目前量度地震大小最理想的物理量。与传统上使用的其他震级标度相比,矩震级不会饱和,对于所有地震,无论大小、深浅,无论使用远场、近场地震波资料,大地测量和地质资料中的何种资料,均可测量矩震级,并能与熟知的震级标度如面波震级M_S相衔接。矩震级是一个均匀的震级标度,适于震级范围很宽的统计。矩震级是国际地震学界选定的首选震级,负责向公众发布地震信息的部门优先采用的发布的震级。文中介绍了计算矩震级所用的公式,详细解说了具体的计算步骤,分析了由于采用的计算矩震级公式的不同,采取的具体的数值计算步骤的不同引起的问题以及解决这些问题的相关的规定。     

能量震级及其测定

对于地震灾害与风险评估,人们更关注的是地震辐射能量E_S和能量震级M_e的大小,能量震级M_e反映震源动态特征,适合描述地震的潜在破坏性。本文介绍地震波能量E_S和地震矩M₀的物理意义及能量震级M_e的定义和测定方法,并测定得到2017年8月8日四川九寨沟M_S 7.0地震的能量震级M_e为6.3。     

从震级偏差看震级问题

震级为地震的基本参数之一,由于测定震级普遍存在偏差等问题,测定震级的稳定性问题一直令人关注。该文就震级偏差的起因进行了讨论,认为产生偏差的主要原因是震级本身问题和地球内部结构的各向异性导致地震波能量记录失真。     

地震的震级

简要介绍了地方性震级Mi、体波震级mb、面波震级Ms和矩震级Mw的定义及其测定方法,分析了它们的优点和缺点,并对震级饱和效应及其产生的原因作了介绍和解释。文章指出,矩震级是一个表征地震绝对大小的量,它与地震震源的物理过程直接关联,不会饱和;与传统上使用的其他震级标度相比,矩震级具有明显的优点,是当今国际地震学界推荐优先使用的震级标度。     

山西台网新国家标准震级标度与传统震级标度测定地方性震级的对比分析

选用2018年山西数字地震台网的观测资料,分别对新国家标准震级标度与传统震级标度测定的地方性震级进行了对比分析。结果表明,新国标ML震级与传统ML震级一致性较高,震级偏差在0.1之内。新国家标准震级标度很好地继承和衔接了传统震级标度,使用分区量规函数测定的ML单台震级偏差和平均标准偏差值均较小,新震级标度测定的近震震级更加准确。     

地震自动速报中常用震级测定方法的适用性研究

对于M_L、M_WP、m_B等自动速报中常用的震级测定方法,通过模拟2020年1月19新疆伽师6.4级地震和2021年5月21日云南漾濞中强震震群震级的准实时测定过程,分析这3种震级测定方法在震后不同时间产出的震级的准确度及产生震级偏差的原因。此外,通过计算2020年1月1日—2022年7月31日中国大陆发生的56个M4.5以上地震事件的M_L、M_WP、m_B震级,分析这3种方法在中强震震级测定中的稳定性,比较不同测定方法在不同震级段的优劣及适用范围,得到以下几点认识:(1)使用转换公式将M_L转换为M是造成震级偏差较大的重要原因,M_L不应转换,其值可直接作为中强震自动速报的发布震级;(2)对于密集发生的震群,M_WP和m_B易受先前地震尾波或长周期信号的影响,震级偏大,且偏差较大,不宜用作地震自动速报的震级,使用M_L更优;(3)在4.5～5.5震级段应使用M     

震级离散下的震级频度关系

运用最大熵原理,研究震级离散条件下震级频度关系,得到震级离散条件下震级概率分布函数,结果表明:(1)震级大于等于某一震级的地震次数应通过离散求和的方式得到,而不应通过积分的方式得到;(2) 震级上限取为∞的情况下,古登堡意义和里克特意义两种震级频度关系式的b值相等;震级上限有限的情况下,里克特意义震级频度关系式可能不是直线.     

共反射面元走时曲面计算方法

共反射面元走时曲面计算是共反射面元叠加的关键.常规共反射面元叠加必须通过相干搜索和优化确定共反射面元叠加公式中的三个属性参数（二维）,从而确定共反射面元走时曲面,该类算法具有三点不足：①相干搜索及优化法计算量大;②共反射面元叠加公式仅适用小炮检距;③波前曲率半径取负号且较小时,共反射面元叠加公式基本不适用.为此,本文提出了利用共反射点射线追踪拟合共反射面元走时曲面的计算方法.模型计算证明该方法比传统共反射面元叠加走时曲面计算精度高,适用性强.     

对共反射面叠加的进一步探讨

共反射面元（CRS）叠加考虑了反射层的局部特征和第一菲涅耳带内的全部反射,更充分挖掘了多次覆盖数据的潜力.但在地下介质复杂并存在倾斜层时存在反射点分散的情况,从而影响了CRS叠加效果.本文从射线理论出发,在考虑反射层局部特征的情况下,推导了水平地表和起伏地表情况下计算真实反射点分散程度的公式,最终将反射点分散程度定量表达出来.通过对反射点分散程度的控制,从CRS道集中抽取出共反射点（CRP）道集,在CRP道集中而不是在CRS道集中实现叠加,其效果应比传统的CRS叠加效果要好.利用水平地表和起伏地表的模型验证了本文所推导的公式的正确性和有效性.该公式在实际资料处理中的运用尚待进一步研究.     

Fractal dimensions of individual flocs and floc populations in streams

The fractal dimension of an individual floc is a measure of the complexity of its external shape. Fractal dimensions can also be used to characterize floc populations, in which case the fractal dimension indicates how the shape of the smaller flocs relates to that of the larger flocs. The objective of this study is to compare the fractal dimensions of floc populations with those of individual flocs, and to evaluate how well both indicate contributions of sediment sources and reflect the nature and extent of flocculation in streams. Suspended solids were collected prior to and during snowmelt at upstream and downstream sites in two southern Ontario streams with contrasting riparian zones. An image analysis system was used to determine area, longest axis and perimeter of flocs. The area–perimeter relationship was used to calculate the fractal dimension, D, that characterizes the floc population. For each sample, the fractal dimension, D_i , of the 28 to 30 largest individual flocs was determined from the perimeter–step‐length relationship. Prior to snowmelt, the mean value of D_i ranged from 1·19 (Cedar Creek, downstream) to 1·22 (Strawberry Creek, upstream and downstream). A comparison of the means using t‐tests indicates that most samples on this day had comparable mean values of D_i . During snowmelt, there was no significant change in the mean value of D_i at the Cedar Creek sites. In contrast, for Strawberry Creek the mean value of D_i at both sites increased significantly, from 1·22 prior to snowmelt to 1·34 during snowmelt. This increase reflects the contribution of sediment‐laden overland flow to the sediment load. At three of the sampling sites, the increase in fractal dimensions was accompanied by a decreases in effective particle size, which can be explained by an increase in bed shear stress. A comparison of fractal dimensions of individual flocs in a sample with the fractal dimensions of the floc populations indicates that both fractal dimensions provide similar information about the temporal changes in sediment source contributions, about the contrasting effectiveness of the riparian buffer zones in the two basins, and about the hydraulic conditions in the streams. Nevertheless, determining the individual fractal dimensions of a set of large flocs in a sample is very time consuming. Using fractal dimensions of floc populations is therefore the preferred method to characterize suspended matter. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effect of common point selection on coordinate transformation parameter determination

The use of satellite positioning techniques commonly requires a transformation from a Conventional Terrestrial coordinate system to a Geodetic coordinate system, or vice versa. For such a transformation, the main problem is the determination of transformation parameters between these coordinate systems. The transformation parameters are estimated by a least-squares process using “common” points, i.e., those points whose coordinates are known in both systems. Therefore, the precision of so estimated transformation parameters is closely related to certain characteristics of the common points. In this contribution, we have formulated some theoretical relations between the transformation parameters and the number and the distribution of common points, and corroborated the theoretical results numerically, using a simulated geodetic network.     

偏心多塔结构同基础隔震效果分析

偏心隔震结构在地震动作用下,除发生平动外,还将发生平-扭耦联的反应,从而使震害加重,尤其是隔震层较易发生破坏。本文利用自行编制的分析程序,对偏心多塔隔震结构进行了数值分析,在此基础上,提出偏心多塔结构同基础隔震的设计方案。数值模拟计算结果表明,对偏心单塔隔震结构,在地震作用下采用多塔同基础隔震的方案,能大幅度降低结构隔震层的扭转反应,其中最大扭转加速度最少降低55%,最大扭转角最少降低84%。可见,在条件许可时,将相邻偏心单塔结构采用同基础隔震的方案,对提高隔震效果是有利的。     

Fractal dimensions of suspended solids in streams: comparison of sampling and analysis techniques

Fluvial suspended sediment typically consists of a variety of complex, composite particles referred to as flocs. Floc characteristics are determined by factors such as the source, size and geochemical properties of the primary particles, chemical and biological coagulation processes in the water column and shear stress and turbulence levels in the stream. Studies of floc morphology have used two contrasting methods of sampling and analysis. In the first method, particles settle on a microscope slide and are observed from below using an inverted microscope. The second method uses filtration at no or low vacuum and particles deposited on the filter are observed with a microscope. Floc morphology can be quantified using fractal dimensions. The aims of the present study were to examine the effect of the two sampling methods on the fractal dimensions of particle populations, and to evaluate for each method how well the fractal dimensions at the various sampling sites reflect basin conditions. Suspended solids were collected in triplicate on inverted microscope slides and on 0·45 μm Millipore HA filters in two southern Ontario streams with contrasting riparian zones during a minor runoff event resulting from the melt of a freshly fallen snowpack. An image analysis system was used to determine area, longest axis and perimeter of particles. The morphology of the particle population of each sample was characterized using four fractal dimensions (D, D₁, D₂ and D_K). Systematic differences in fractal dimensions obtained with the two methods were observed. For the settling method, outlines of larger particles were frequently blurred because of the distance between the focal plane (the top of the inverted microscope slides) and the plane of the particle outline. In this method, the blurring of large particles can cause an increase in the projected area and length of the particle. The effect on the particle perimeter is unpredictable because it depends on the amount of detail lost through blurring and its effect on the apparent increase in particle size. Because of blurring, D and D₁ tend to be systematically lower for the settling method, whereas the net effect on D₂ is unpredictable. Particle size distributions derived from settling are typically coarser because small, low density particles may remain in the water column and all particles may not deposit on the slides. This loss of fines results in systematically lower D_K values for the settling method compared with the filtration method. Fractal dimensions and particle size distributions obtained with the filtration method were sensitive to and clearly indicated differences between drainage basins and between sites within each basin. These differences were explained by basin characteristics and conditions. Fractal dimensions and particle size distributions obtained with the settling method were less sensitive to drainage basin characteristics and conditions, which limits their usefulness as process indicators. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Large in‐stream wood studies: a call for common metrics

During the past decade, research on large in‐stream wood has expanded beyond North America's Pacific Northwest to diverse environments and has shifted toward increasingly holistic perspectives that incorporate processes of wood recruitment, retention, and loss at scales from channel segments to entire watersheds. Syntheses of this rapidly expanding literature can be facilitated by agreement on primary variables and methods of measurement. In this paper we address these issues by listing the variables that we consider fundamental to studies of in‐stream wood, discussing the sources of variability in their measurement, and suggesting more consistency in future studies. We recommend 23 variables for all studies of in‐stream wood, as well as another 12 variables that we suggest for studies with more specific objectives. Each of these variables relates either to the size and characteristics of in‐stream wood, to the geomorphic features of the channel and valley, or to the ecological characteristics of the riparian zone adjacent to the study reach. The variables were derived from an overview of those cited in the literature and from our collective field experiences. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Single-station estimates of the seismic moment of the 1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan earthquakes,using the mantle magnitudeM m

Measurements are taken of the mantle magnitudeM _m , developed and introduced in previous papers, in the case of the 1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan earthquakes, by far the largest events ever recorded instrumentally. We show that theM _m algorithm recovers the seismic moment of these gigantic earthquakes with an accuracy (typically 0.2 to 0.3 units of magnitude, or a factor of 1.5 to 2 on the seismic moment) comparable to that achieved on modern, digital, datasets. In particular, this study proves that the mantle magnitudeM _m does not saturate for large events, as do standard magnitude scales, but rather keeps growing with seismic moment, even for the very largest earthquakes. We further prove that the algorithm can be applied in unfavorable experimental conditions, such as instruments with poor response at mantle periods, seismograms clipped due to limited recording dynamics, or even on microbarograph records of air coupled Rayleigh waves.In addition, we show that it is feasible to use acoustic-gravity air waves generated by those very largest earthquakes, to obtain an estimate of the seismic moment of the event along the general philosophy of the magnitude concept: a single-station measurement ignoring the details of the earthquake's focal mechanism and exact depth.     

The third asymptotic distribution of largest magnitudes in the Balkan earthquake provinces

Summary The third asymptotic distribution of the theory of largest values is applied to sixteen earthquake provinces in the Balkan area. The model which assumes an upper magnitude limit fits the observations better than the first distribution. Graphs and tables provide estimates of return periods of largest magnitudes.Communication presented at the XV General Assembly of the European Seismological Commission in Krakow, 22–28 September, 1976.