Trust Matters – Social Capital in Herding Cooperation in Finland

Reindeer herding is a nature-based livelihood of the indigenous Sámi people in northern parts of Europe and Russia. During the last decades, reindeer herding has become a more significant issue in the context of the market economy: the livelihood has transformed toward entrepreneurship, and the subsidies demand growth in the scale of herding. According to the national administration, the market values are highlighted. However, for herders, market economies are only one part of their livelihood. Another important part is their experience of reindeer herding as a way of life; for many reindeer herders trust in their livelihood and the social relations associated with their way of life are of equal or greater importance than economic aspects. In this paper, the role of social trust in the changing process of reindeer herding is discussed. Inherited tacit and cultural knowledge, as a part of social capital, strengthen reindeer herders’ experience of trust.     

Chukotkan reindeer husbandry in the post-socialist transition

Reindeer herding in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, as in many other regions across the Russian North, has been experiencing a progressive collapse since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The collapse is typically blamed on Russia's privatization programme, which broke up collectivized reindeer farms into supposedly privatized enterprises. While this process did indeed bring significant changes to the practice of reindeer herding in Chukotka, this paper argues that a more fundamental issue is the political and economic change at the local level that most likely makes the collapse irreversible. Áccording to the rhetoric of the new "democratic" framework, the majority rules, and their priorities take precedence. As a result, the indigenous peoples and their priorities - chief among which is reindeer herding - have been squeezed into the political margins. This has been exacerbated by the development of a relationship of internal colonialism between dominant urban Russians and village-dwelling indigenous reindeer herders, which has led to greater inequalities between the two groups as the Russians monopolize both resources and power in the region.     

A reindeer herder's perspective on caribou, weather and socio-economic change on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska

Non-climate variables shape vulnerability and adaptive capacity to climate change. Here, we describe how recent environmental and socio-economic developments have transformed reindeer herding and perceptions of weather on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska. The reindeer industry has shrunk considerably since the early 1990s, when the winter range of the Western Arctic Caribou Herd expanded, and over 17 000 reindeer mixed with migrating caribou and left the region. Socio-economic and environmental repercussions make the continuation of herding tenuous, and erode the ability of herders to cope with weather variability, among other perturbations. We present a case study of one herder's annual cycle, and juxtapose physical drivers of herding activities, including weather-station and herder observations of local weather variability, with socio-economic factors. There is an increased urgency to access and monitor reindeer with caribou present, but herding plans are constrained by lower economic returns and the need to spend more time in non-herding jobs. Although weather is a greater concern now for immediate herd access, standard weather data are largely irrelevant to the mechanics of herding, whereas variables pertaining to the timing of biotic events (e.g., synchrony of spring break-up and calving) and visibility are attributed to lost herding opportunities. Short-term responses to weather conditions stem from more long-term vulnerability associated with caribou presence, reduced herd size, difficulties affording snowmobile maintenance or crew assistance, and dwindling market opportunities. We emphasize the environmental and socio-economic interactions that affect vulnerability and adaptive capacity for modern herding.     

Komi reindeer herding: the effects of socialist and post-socialist change on mobility and land use

This paper contributes to the discussion concerning the way in which Soviet state policies have influenced the lives, social organization, economy and culture of a group of indigenous Komi reindeer herders of northern Russia: its main focus is to explain how these policies have changed the herders' patterns of migration and land use. Extensive anthropological fieldwork—to determine current and past herding practices—was carried out and archives were thoroughly investigated to document land use changes in relation to state reindeer herding policies. It was found that compared with those of several decades ago, the migration routes are now much shorter, as the herders have abandoned large areas of winter pastures located in the southernmost part of their herding territory. This "abandonment" phenomenon is endemic amongst reindeer herders generally, throughout the Komi Republic. Whereas the reasons for the abandonment of winter pastures are diverse, they can be attributed mostly to the state sedentarization policy, which has modified the family structures of herders, and the continuing decreases in state subsidies that have changed the balance between state and private ownership of reindeer. Both these factors have greatly contributed to the herders' dependence on visiting towns, where they now own flats, and on selling reindeer products, upon which they are increasingly reliant for financial security.     

The Asian financial crisis,women's work and forced migration

The effects of the deepening financial crisis in Malaysia, Thailand and South Korea, led by the collapse of financial and currency markets, have spread beyond domestic boundaries to other Asian economies. Financial instability, devaluation and inflation are warning signals for other Asian countries in the process of repairing damage to their economies. The mobility of female labour, due to eviction and expulsion (forced migration), is related to forces of the new market mechanism in the era of the globalizing world. Two processes of forced migration are highlighted: between countries; and between urban and rural areas. Such processes have led to increasing mobility and to the eviction of immigrant labour and the female labour force, which has affected the local economy, type of work and gender relations. Thailand is examined as a case study, with supplementary data from other affected countries. There is a strong tendency for women especially to be priced out of the economy and forced to return either to their native villages within the host country or to their home countries. The type and pattern of migration and change of occupation helps in the understanding of the power of globalization, the dynamics of the crisis and its impact on women workers.     

Many a little makes a mickle: Cumulative land cover changes and traditional land use in the Kyrö reindeer herding district,northern Finland

Traditional land use systems are threatened by land use intensification and resulting land cover transitions in northern areas. This article examines cumulative land cover changes and their impacts on reindeer grazing grounds in the Kyrö reindeer herding district in northern Finland. Land cover transitions were studied using Landsat TM and OLI images and topographic maps. The results showed that the herding district has experienced notable land cover changes during the past decades, and most of these changes were directly related to forestry. The proportion of continuous coniferous forests of the total forest cover declined from 92% to 78% between 1987 and 2013. Approximately one third of the forests outside current conservation areas were disturbed by forest management by 2013, and remaining forests were notably more fragmented than forests within conservation areas. The extent of the road and path networks expanded considerably between 1960s and 2010 as a result of increasing logging and tourism. Accumulation of disturbances gradually results in loss of key resources and declined quality of the landscape mosaic from the reindeer herding perspective, which can pose a serious threat to long-term sustainability of the livelihood. Rapid land cover changes in non-protected areas highlight an increasingly important role of conservation areas in maintaining resources for reindeer husbandry in the face of intensifying land use. Sustainable management of resources outside conservation areas requires careful participatory planning and efficient cumulative impact assessment of different land use activities.     

Reindeer Herders Without Reindeer. The Challenges of Joint Knowledge Production on Kolguev Island in the Russian Arctic

Kolguev Island in the Russian Arctic has a unique tundra ecosystem and an indigenous Nenets population whose livelihood is traditionally based on reindeer herding. The Nenets faced a major crisis in 2013–2014 when the reindeer population collapsed. Widely different explanations for this collapse were put forward. This lack of a shared perspective points at the failure of genuine joint knowledge production (JKP) in the island’s UNEP–GEF’s ECORA project (2004–2009). The ECORA project aimed to achieve integrated ecosystem management by stimulating dialog and mutual learning among indigenous people, state agencies, and scientists. This paper analyses the failure of ECORA’s JKP, using a recently developed framework of conditions for successful JKP. The results suggest that ECORA met none of these conditions. It failed at bringing the scientific and indigenous knowledge systems together, and the produced knowledge did not resonate with indigenous people’s perception of living in Kolguev.     

Research planning in the face of change: the human role in reindeer/caribou systems

Reindeer/caribou ( Rangifer tarandus ) constitute a biological resource of vital importance to the physical and cultural survival of Arctic residents since time immemorial. Recent and possible future economic, social and ecological changes raise concern for sustainability of these resources and the well-being of those who depend on them. In February 1999 eighty scientists, reindeer/caribou users and resource managers gathered in Rovaniemi, Finland, for an interdisciplinary workshop to develop a circumpolar research plan that addressed the sustainability of humanreindeer/caribou systems. Small working groups addressed six themes: hunting systems, herding systems, rengeland/habitat protection, minimizing industrial impacts, maintaining the strength of indigenous cultures, and responding to global change. The resulting Research Plan cells for interdisciplinary comparative studies, advancement of tools for assessing cumulative effects, implementation of regional and a circumpolar monitoring and assessment programmes, and cultural studies on the transmission of knowledge. Cross-cutting directives for future research include:
• improving humans'ability to anticipate and respond to change;
• understanding better the dynamics of human-reindeer/caribou systems;
• developing research methods that are both more instructive and less intrusive;
• facilitating open communication among groups with interests in reindeer/caribou resources;
• organizing researchers into a strong, coordinated network;
• re-framing the conventional research paradigm to be more inclusive of differing cultural perspectives.
Three follow-up initiatives are proposed: 1) development of a web-based resource on the human role in reindeer/caribou systems (www.rangifer.net); establishment of a Profile of Herds database to support comparative research; and 3) convening of working groups to address specific problems identified by workshop participants.     

基于不同区域层级的文化产业集聚研究

利用企业层面数据,从市域和省域两个尺度研究中国文化产业的集聚特征,并揭示集聚对文化企业生产率的影响。应用一致性方法估计了中国文化企业的生产函数,并计算企业层面全要素生产率估计值,并从专业化和城市化两个角度研究集聚对于文化企业的影响。结果表明：① 地级市尺度下,文化产业专业化经济并不显著,但却存在城市化经济;② 在更大的省域层面,则呈现出专业化经济显著,多样化经济弱化的特征;③ 行业和区域异质性回归显示了结果的稳健性,核心文化产业的产业集聚经济更显著;④ 在知识溢出效应占主导的文化集聚中,通信基础设施良好的省份被赋予了创意交流的便利性,因而拥有更强的集聚经济。     

Globalisation, the Economic Crisis, and Small Enterprises in Makassar, Indonesia: Focusing on the Local Dimensions

It has been suggested that the economic crisis in Southeast Asia had a severe effect on small scale enterprises in the region. In this paper, I interpret the different consequences of this economic crisis ( krismon ) for small enterprises in the city of Makassar, Sulawesi, in the light of current globalisation debates. It is argued that for the majority of small enterprises, there have not been significant changes because of the relative isolation of Sulawesi within the Indonesian and global economies. However, for other small enterprises, there have been two significant changes indirectly linked to wider globalisation influences, because of the importance of conspicuous consumption amongst local cultural groups. In turn, this leads to an evaluation of both the strength of globalisation tendencies in the city, and the important influence of local cultural traits on the ways in which members of the local economy have responded to change.     

Homeland Orientation of War-torn Diasporas: Remittances and Cultural Practices of Tamils and Somalis in Norway

Wild reindeer are under pressure from human development projects throughout their habitat. Norway is currently making a significant move to establish a new management model based on national reindeer regions and regional management plans. A focus on wild reindeer as a flagship species allows the species to be included as a broad conservation objective in complex land-use plans. The authors surveyed a representative sample of residents in the Rondane and Setesdal regions to examine their perceptions of the current status of reindeer and how management relates to other social and development issues. Local actors and institutions, including hunters, were perceived as more responsible and suited to make decisions about reindeer population sizes and management objectives than non-local actors. There was little local consensus on the role of human impacts on wild reindeer, and residents rated local knowledge higher than scientific knowledge for management purposes. Rondane residents attached more importance to reindeer than Setesdal residents, but the latter saw reindeer as more threatened by human development. New management approaches will need to take a social-ecological perspective and recognize that the inclusion of reindeer can enhance broader conservation goals at regional, national, and international levels, but may also escalate local social conflicts.     

文化多元与邂逅：电影作品中的华裔社区地方营造

经过艺术加工的影视作品反映现实的同时也高于现实,不断重构、书写现实空间。本研究援引邂逅地理及地方感等理论,以5部华裔社区空间题材的电影作品为主要分析对象,以文本分析法为主要研究方法,探讨五部影片中关于华裔社区的选择再现及其背后蕴涵的社会文化意义。研究发现：①影视文本首先从民俗仪式与风水文化两个空间文化符号出发,构建地方性;在此基础上,电影文本以景观符号为切入口再现华裔社区的物质空间,实现新的地方营造。②文化多元的背景下,华裔社区成为“我者”文化与“他者”文化邂逅的重要场所。③非表征理论通过强调人的“身体”与族裔社区的相互关系从而在地方协商和情感融入框架下探索新的邂逅。研究还进一步探讨了电影文本中族裔社区的文化多元性与地方治理的关系,为族裔社区在未来实现更好的地方治理提供参考与建议。     

Status, directions and priorities of reindeer husbandry research in Sweden

Emerging out of small-scale reindeer farming, large-scale reindeer husbandry in Sweden and Norway was developed to counteract resource scarcity caused by depleted wild reindeer numbers and human population growth above what the former subsistence economy could sustain. Current numbers of reindeer are likely lower and fluctuate less than before wild reindeer were depleted and reindeer husbandry started on a large scale. Productivity is about 7-8 kg of meat per head in winter stock. Current problems arise from a multitude of circumstances, some of them related to the problems of practising a subsistence type of living in close connection with a modern industrialized society. Problems include: low production, typical for harsh conditions and use of an unimproved animal stock; the inability to support a modern standard of living solely from reindeer; the collective access to grazing grounds which makes internal management difficult; unclear legal rights resulting in conflicting interests with other land users and formal owners; and the relatively low number of people directly involved in reindeer husbandry. Possible long-term consequences are marginalization and the loss of land use rights, with negative consequences for the Saami as an indigenous people. Reindeer husbandry research addresses these problems by integrating human-ecological and socio-economic aspects with traditional natural science orientated research on reindeer husbandry problems. This research is funded by a multitude of sources. Independently of this, research is conducted on Saami life and culture in relation to reindeer husbandry at various universities, especially within social sciences and arts.     

The relationship between herders and trees in space and time in northern Cameroon

Extensive herding is an important activity in northern Cameroon, in terms of both the local social economy and local land management. However, this activity is strongly linked to the availability and accessibility of fodder resources. Due to territorial processes, such as land clearance and wood harvesting, this resource is receding and pasturelands are becoming fragmented. Herders are facing new challenges to secure their livelihoods, and, in this context, fodder trees are emerging as a key resource, allowing herds to subsist up to the end of the dry season. Increasingly, trees are playing a significant part in the herders' strategies to feed their herds in time and space and to 'root' their activities to particular lands. This trend requires an analysis of the importance of fodder trees in the definition of territorial strategies operated by herders in northern Cameroon, in the context of various herding systems (nomadic herding, agro herding using transhumance, and settled agro herding). A discussion of herding strategies needed to address the decreasing access to fodder resources highlights the problems of current extensive herding systems and leads to proposed alternatives.     

Response of reindeer and caribou to human activities

Petroleum and mineral exploration and extraction, hydroelectric development, atmospheric transport of contaminants, timber harvesting and tourism are increasing worldwide, especially in the Arctic. This development may adversely affect populations of reindeer/caribou ( Rangifer tarandus ) which are the basis of subsistence economies for northern indigenous peoples. Our purpose is to present a survey of the literature that has investigated the response of reindeer/caribou to human activities. Individuals and groups of reindeer/caribou: 1) move away from point sources of disturbance; 2) increase activity and energy expenditure near disturbance; 3) delay crossing or fail to cross linear structures; 4) shift away from areas of extensive and intensive development; and 5) are killed by collisions with vehicles and by hunting along roads. Cows and calves during the calving season are the most easily disturbed group. Bulls in general and all reindeer/caribou during insect harassment are least likely to avoid development areas. Estimation of the proportion of a population that is exposed to disturbance and the implications of this exposure to annual energy budgets, survival and productivity of reindeer/caribou has received little attention. Future advances in understanding the implications of human disturbance to reindeer/caribou will require cumulative effects assessment at annual, population and regional scales. Although some level of cumulative effect is likely, clear separation of cumulative effects of development from natural variation in caribou habitat use and demography will be difficult.     

基于游客的乡愁文化元素认知影响因素研究——以徽州地区为例

地方失忆危机背景下,“留住乡愁”理念下的新型城镇化发展模式探讨成为学界关注的重点。地理学领域,旅游发展被认为是“留住乡愁”的有效途径。然而,目前相关研究多是定性描述及逻辑推演,相关的案例分析、定量研究较少。基于此,本文以徽州地区为例,立足“留住乡愁”旅游发展的基础-乡愁文化资源的挖掘,通过构建游客视角下的乡愁文化元素体系,借助认知测度分析、Logistic回归模型等,对游客视角下的乡愁文化元素认知影响因素进行研究。研究表明,游客对旅游地乡愁文化元素的总体认知程度较高,但个体间存在较大差别;具体维度上,游客对旅游地建筑风貌格局的认知程度较高,其次是自然景观映像以及乡土故事人物,认知程度最低的是地方节庆展演;影响游客乡愁文化元素认知水平的因素主要有年龄、到访次数、休闲体验动机、购物动机,这四个因素对游客乡愁文化元素认知水平的影响为休闲体验动机>到访次数>年龄>购物动机。其中,休闲体验动机、到访次数、年龄对乡愁文化元素的认知程度起显著正向影响作用,购物动机对乡愁文化元素的认知程度起显著负向影响作用。本研究对于回应学界关于旅游发展作为“留住乡愁”理念下新型城镇化模式的论断、拓宽文化旅游资源内涵、指导地方细分客源市场进行乡愁文化元素挖掘有一定的理论意义和参考价值。     

“文化转向”视角下移民地理学研究进展与趋势

论文梳理了地理学视角下的移民研究以及在全球化和新型城镇化背景下中国流动人口的研究,探讨在“文化转向”范式下移民地理学的研究进展和趋势。指出：① 地理学对移民的研究包括宏观上的迁移模式和动力机制的研究,中观尺度上移民的社会文化互动与地方协商问题,以及微观尺度上移民的日常生活、认同与情感;其中,“移民—地方”的核心人地关系,特别是移民的空间实践与地方协商成为了移民地理学关注的重点。② 受“文化转向”的影响,移民地理学研究正从宏观尺度的规律总结和普适性理论转移到研究移民日常生活、情感和认同背后的权力和社会关系,以揭示移民多样化的诉求。③ 移民地理学对中国移民的研究主要集中于城乡二元制度框架下对乡—城流动人口的关注,需要拓展全球化背景下多样化的移民群体的考察。研究试图拓展中国移民地理学的研究议题,思考基于发展中国家话语下的移民研究新知。     

Modelling collective Yawuru values along the foreshore of Roebuck Bay,Western Australia using fuzzy logic

The cadastral model has played a key role in Indigenous dispossession in settler states. Yet, the recognition of Indigenous land rights, which has increased globally since the 1960s, frequently requires Indigenous communities to directly engage with this spatial model. In Australia, native title claimants must use entity-based models of space to delineate their traditional territories during the claim process. They must also engage with planning and development documents which use the cadastral model of space to assert and defend their rights following native title recognition. This is often problematic as Indigenous spatial ontologies emphasise complexity and continuity which is inimical to the ‘crisp’ representations of cadastral space.This study explores the potential of a fuzzy index modelling approach to represent cultural values using a case study from Broome, Western Australia. Sketch mapping, fuzzy index modelling and combinatory techniques were used to produce a model of several cultural values held by the Yawuru community for the in-town foreshore of Roebuck Bay. This model was overlaid on local planning documents to provide the Yawuru community with strategic intelligence for post native title governance. The experience of co-producing this model suggests that such techniques may assist Indigenous communities to engage with settler structures. This implies that policies which fail to extend analytical capacity to interested native title groups as part of programmes of spatial enablement continue to perpetuate historical processes of colonial domination.     

外来饮食文化影响下广州本地居民地方身份建构过程的代际差异

伴随着地理学的文化转向以及“身体”“情感”视角的引入,饮食文化的空间问题开始引发人文地理学界的关注。借助身份建构过程模型理论（identity process theory, IPT）,依托对38位广州本地人的深度访谈,阐释外来饮食文化对其身份建构过程的影响及代际差异。研究发现,外来饮食文化的涌入引发了老一辈广州人多重的身份危机感,激发他们投身于地方传统饮食文化复兴实践,以对传统的忠诚和坚守来建构其地方身份。而自幼就被外来及本土饮食文化共同包围的年轻人则善于在不同情境下采纳不同文化态度和策略来建构其地方身份,缓解身份危机。该代际差异折射出饮食文化空间政治结构的轮回,而恰恰是这一空间政治的轮回孕育了地方饮食文化的继替。     

中国南方传统聚落景观区划及其利用价值

聚落文化景观是文化景观研究的最有效的切入点。由于中国南方地区较为多样化的地理环境和文化背景,传统聚落景观的多样化特点比北方地区表现得更为鲜明。不同地方环境与文化背景下的南方传统聚落景观,表现出较为明显的地域分异和景观意象差异,从而划分出识别性较强的8个聚落景观区和40个景观亚区。8个聚落景观区为:Ⅰ.江浙水乡聚落景观区;Ⅱ.皖赣徽商聚落景观区;Ⅲ.闽粤赣边客家聚落景观区;Ⅳ.浙南闽台沿海丘陵聚落景观区;Ⅴ.岭南广府聚落景观区;Ⅵ.湘鄂赣平原山地聚落景观区;Ⅶ.云贵高原及桂西北多民族聚落景观区;Ⅷ.四川盆地及周边巴蜀聚落景观区。南方传统聚落景观区的保护与利用价值主要表现在其独特的遗产价值、科学价值、美学价值及旅游价值。