Adsorption characteristics of perchloroethylene in natural sandy materials with low organic carbon content

Laboratory batch tests were conducted to investigate the sorption isotherms and sorption kinetics of the chlorinated hydrocarbon perchloroethylene (PCE) in five natural sandy materials with an organic carbon content (f _oc) in the range 0.080–0.540%. The amended non-linear dual-mode model can describe the sorption isotherms in materials with f _oc in the range 0.080–0.090%. For a sample with a much higher f _oc of 0.54%, the absorption isotherm was found to fit a linear model. These results may indicate that organic carbon is not the main factor influencing the sorption isotherm. The sorption kinetics of PCE in samples with f _oc in the range 0.080–0.090% are not first-order and are different from those observed in the samples with higher f _oc. The sorption process in the materials with lower f _oc involves fast sorption, fast desorption and an equilibrium stage. The results may imply that the factors affecting sorption kinetics of PCE in low f _oc media are pore filling and capillary condensation rather than organic carbon content.     

The groundwater resources and sustainable yield of Cheju volcanic island, Korea

 Hydrogeologic data of 455 water wells comprising geologic logs, water qualities, and aquifer test results are analyzed to determine hydrogeological characteristics, water quality, and sustainable yield of the groundwater resources of Cheju volcanic island. The groundwater of the island occurs in unconsolidated pyroclastic deposits and clinkers interbedded in highly jointed basaltic and andesitic rocks as high-level, basal, and parabasal groundwater under unconfined conditions. The total storage of groundwater is estimated at about 44 billion m³. The average transmissivity and specific yield of the aquifer are at about 0.34 m² s^–1(29300 m² day^–1) and 0.12, respectively. The average annual precipitation is about 3.39 billion m³, of which 1.49 billion m³– equivalent to 44.0% of the total annual precipitation – is recharged into aquifers, with 0.638 billion m³ year^–1 of runoff and 1.26 billion m³ year^–1 of evapotranspiration. Based on a groundwater budget analysis, the sustainable yield is estimated at about 0.62 billion m³ year^–1, equivalent to 41.6% of annual recharge. A low-permeability marine sedimentary formation (Sehwari formation), composed of loosely cemented sandy silt, was recently found to be situated at 120±68 m below mean sea level. If the said marine sediment is distributed as a basal formation of the freshwater zone of the island, most of its groundwater will be of parabasal type. So the marine sediment is one of the most important hydrogeological boundaries and groundwater occurrences in the area. Received: 16 January 1997 / Accepted: 16 June 1997     

Hydrology of part of the Oramiriukwa River basin,southeast of Owerri,Imo State,Nigeria

The Oramiriukwa River is within the sandy coastal plain strata of the Benin formation (Miocene–Recent). The base flow is very high ranging from 79.13–98.56%, which is caused by the excellent hydraulic interconnection between the river and the adjacent unconfined aquifer. Recharge rates are high, estimated to range from 1.8×10¹²–2.5×10¹² m³/year. Coastal sands are medium-to-coarse grained, moderately-to-poorly sorted, angular to subangular, with lenses of clay and clayey fine-grained sands. The coastal sands and clay lenses form aquifer and aquitard systems, which are unconfined to semi-confined. Groundwater recharge potential is high. Runoff from precipitation is low. Groundwater and surface water are fairly acidic; pH ranges from 5.5–6.1 (groundwater) and 5.8–6.5 (surface water), and hardness is generally low. Chemical analysis and percentage sodium show that groundwater and surface water are somewhat potable after some pH modification of the surface water. The waters are good for agricultural use, especially for irrigation and poultry water supply. However, pollution from landfill leachate is serious. Electronic Publication     

Groundwater resources of the middle and upper Odra River basin, southwestern Poland

 The total amount of groundwater resources in the middle and upper Odra River basin is 5200×10³ m³/d, or about 7.7% of the disposable groundwater resources of Poland. The average modulus of groundwater resources is about 1.4 L/s/km². Of the 180 'Major Groundwater Basins' (MGWB) in Poland, 43 are partly or totally located within the study area. The MGWB in southwestern Poland have an average modulus of groundwater resources about 2.28 L/s/km² and thus have abundant water resources in comparison to MGWB from other parts of the country. Several types of mineral waters occur in the middle and upper Odra River basin. These waters are concentrated especially in the Sudety Mountains. Carbon-dioxide waters, with yields of 414 m³/h, are the most widespread of Sudetic mineral waters. The fresh waters of the crystalline basement have a low mineralization, commonly less than 100 mg/L; they are a HCO₃–Ca–Mg or SO₄–Ca–Mg type of water. Various hydrochemical compositions characterize the groundwater in sedimentary rocks. The shallow aquifers are under risk of atmospheric pollution and anthropogenic effects. To prevent the degradation of groundwater resources in the middle and upper Odra River basin, Critical Protection Areas have been designated within the MGWB. Received, January 1995 Revised, May 1996, August 1997 Accepted, August 1997     

Soil sorption of caesium modelled by the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm equations

The Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherm equations were used to model Cs sorption in 6 Welsh soils. The pH (in water), of the soils ranged from 3.5 to 6.5, and the estimated organic matter (determined by loss-on-ignition) ranged from 4.8% to 46%. According to the Langmuir adsorption isotherm, highest sorption maxima,b, were displayed by the loams at 102–204 mg kg⁻¹, compared with organic soils at 37–86 mg kg⁻¹. Subsoil horizons (15–30 cm depth) did not always display higher sorption maxima than their topsoil (0–15 cm depth) counterparts. Where an improved fit to the Freundlich model was found over the Langmuir model, it was assumed that either concurrent desorption of other species, or bond-energy heterogeneity in the substrate, were significant for these soils.     

Environmental impact assessment on water quality deterioration caused by the decreased Ganges outflow and saline water intrusion in south-western Bangladesh

 This paper deals with an environmental impact assessment of low water flow in the river Ganges during a dry period at the Khulna and Mongla port areas in south-western Bangladesh. Large-scale surface water withdrawal in India after commissioning the Farakka Barrage causes a drastic fall in the Ganges low-flow condition within the Bangladesh territory during every dry period. The average lowest discharge in the Ganges is 552 m³/s, which is about 73% less than that in the pre-Farakka time. This has caused the deterioration of both surface and groundwater quality of the study area. Salinity is the principal cause of water quality degradation in the area. Present observation shows that the surface water of the area is sulphate-chloride dominated, which signifies high salinity whereas the groundwater is categorized as of medium to high salinity. To maintain the Rupsa River's maximum salinity below 1000 μS/cm the discharge in the Ganges should be ∼1500 m³/s, whereas that at Garai basin is ∼10 m³/s. If this present situation continues it will be a crippling blow to the environment of the area in the long term. An integrated multidisciplinary approach to hydrogeological research is urgently required to salvage the area from further deterioration. Received: 9 August 1999 · Accepted: 8 March 2000     

Sustainable groundwater resources, Heretaunga Plains, Hawke's Bay, New Zealand

 The Heretaunga Plains, Hawke's Bay, New Zealand, is underlain by Quaternary fluvial, estuarine-lagoonal, and marine deposits infilling a subsiding syncline. Within the depositional sequence, river-channel gravels form one of the most important aquifer systems in New Zealand. An interconnected unconfined–confined aquifer system contains groundwater recharged from the Ngaruroro River bed at the inland margin of the plain, 20 km from the coast. At the coast, gravel aquifers extend to a depth of 250 m. In 1994–95, 66 Mm³ of high quality groundwater was abstracted for city and rural water supply, agriculture, industry, and horticulture. Use of groundwater, particularly for irrigation, has increased in the last 5 years. Concern as to the sustainability of the groundwater resource led to a research programme (1991–96). This paper presents the results and recommends specific monitoring and research work to refine the groundwater balance, and define and maintain the sustainable yield of the aquifer system. Three critical management factors are identified. These are (1) to ensure maintenance of consistent, unimpeded groundwater recharge from the Ngaruroro River; (2) to specifically monitor groundwater levels and quality at the margins of the aquifer system, where transmissivity is <5000 m²/d and summer groundwater levels indicate that abstraction exceeds recharge; (3) to review groundwater-quality programs to ensure that areas where contamination vulnerability is identified as being highest are covered by regular monitoring. Received, January 1998 / Revised, August 1998, March 1999 / Accepted, April 1999     

Sources of radiogenic helium in a clay till aquitard and its use to evaluate the timing of geologic events

Concentrations of dissolved gases (He, Ne, Ar and N₂) were measured in pore waters collected from a Pleistocene (0-80 m depth) and Cretaceous (80-156 m depth) aged, clay-rich, aquitard system using both a conventional copper-tube method and in situ diffusion samplers. Both methods yielded similar results. He data revealed a well-defined increase in concentration with depth, from 1.7 × 10⁻⁸ cm³ He STP g⁻¹ water near the water table (at 2.3 m below ground surface) to 6.9 × 10⁻⁶ cm³ He STP g⁻¹ water at ∼80 m below ground surface (B.G.) The concentration at depth greatly exceeded values for atmospheric solubility at in situ temperatures and could not be attributed to steady-state production from α-decay of U and Th within the aquitard system. Trends in He isotope ratios and concentrations suggest accumulation as a result of both release of residual ⁴He from within the Pleistocene clay-rich till (ca. 87%) and an ascending radiogenic helium flux from underlying Cretaceous-age sediments (ca. 13%). One-dimensional transport modeling of the He data suggests that between 15 ka and 25 ka were required to produce the observed profile. This time frame agrees with studies utilizing isotope tracers (i.e., D/H and ¹⁴C-DIC) to estimate the timing of deposition for the till at this site. Our results demonstrate the utility of using helium, a nonreactive tracer, for delineating hydrogeologic processes in slow permeability geologic strata, and also support the contention that thick clay-rich surficial aquitards can provide long-term containment of contaminants, including hazardous wastes.     

Water resources development and management in the Cuddapah district, India

 Intensive application of surface water in command areas of irrigation projects is creating water logging problems, and the increase of groundwater usage in agriculture, industry and domestic purposes (through indiscriminate sinking of wells) is causing continuous depletion of water levels, drying up of wells and quality problems. Thus the protect aquifers to yield water continuously at economical cost, the management of water resources is essential. Integrated geological, hydrological (surface and groundwater) and geochemical aspects have been studied for the development and management of water resources in drought-prone Cuddapah district. The main lithological units are crystallines, quartzites, shales and limestones. About 91 000 ha of land in the Cuddapah district is irrigated by canal water. A registered ayacut of about 47 000 ha is irrigated by 1368 minor irrigation tanks. A total of 503 spring channels are identified in the entire district originating from the rivers/streams, which has the capacity of irrigating about 8700 ha. The average seasonal rise in groundwater level is 7.32 m in quartzites, 5.35 m in crystallines, 3.82 m in shales, 2.50 m in limestones and 2.11 m in alluvium. Large quantities of groundwater are available in the mining areas which can be utilised and managed properly by the irrigation department/cultivators for the irrigation practices. Groundwater assessment studies revealed that 584 million m³ of groundwater is available for future irrigation in the district. From the chemical analysis, the quality of groundwater in various rock units is within the permissible limits for irrigation and domestic purposes, but at a few places the specific conductance, chloride and fluoride contents are high. This may be due to untreated effluents, improper drainage system and/or the application of fertilisers. Received: 10 June 1998 · Accepted: 15 November 1998     

Evaluation of heterogeneity and field-scale groundwater flow regime in a leaky till aquitard

Recent work in southern Ontario, Canada, demonstrates anomalously high vertical groundwater flow velocities (>1 m/year) through a thick (as much as 60 m), sandy silt till aquitard (Northern till), previously assumed to be of very low permeability (hydraulic conductivity <10^–10 m/s). Rapid recharge is attributed to the presence of fractures and sedimentary heterogeneities within the till, but the field-scale flow regime is poorly understood. This study identifies the nature of physical groundwater pathways through the till and provides estimates of the associated groundwater fluxes. The aquitard groundwater flow system is characterized by integrating details of the outcrop and subsurface sedimentary characteristics of the till with field-based hydrogeologic investigation and numerical modeling. Outcrop and subsurface data identify a composite internal aquitard stratigraphy consisting of tabular till beds (till elements) separated by laterally continuous sheet-like sands and gravels (interbeds) and boulder pavements. Individual till elements contain sedimentary heterogeneities, including discontinuous sand and gravel lenses, vertical sand dikes, and zones of horizontal and vertical fractures. Hydrogeologic field investigations indicate a three-layer aquitard flow system, consisting of upper and lower zones of more hydraulically active and heterogeneous till separated by a middle unit of relatively lower hydraulic conductivity. Groundwater pathways and fluxes in the till were evaluated using a two-dimensional aquitard/aquifer flow model which indicates a step-wise flow mechanism whereby groundwater moves alternately downward along vertical pathways (fractures, sedimentary dikes) and laterally along horizontal sand interbeds within the till. This model is consistent with observed hydraulic-head and isotope profiles, and the presence of tritiated pore waters at various depths throughout the till. Simulations suggest that a bulk aquitard vertical hydraulic conductivity on the order of 1×10^–9 m/s is required to reproduce observed hydraulic-head and tritium profiles. Electronic Publication     

The first deep Quaternary groundwater capture in Switzerland: combined use and environmental benefits

 Foresighted and determined local authorities, purposeful exploration (i.e. by seismic reflection) and extensive testing led to the discovery of a substantial groundwater resource near the community of Seon (Switzerland) at a depth of 268–305 m. Production tests revealed a hydraulic conductivity of ∼5.10–5 m/s, transmissivity of ∼5.10–4 m²/s and a storage coefficient of ∼2% in the aquifer. Pumping up to 1500 l/min is sustainable; the water quality complies chemically and bacteriologically with drinking-water requirements. The residence time of several 10³ years, determined by isotope techniques, guarantees protection from surface contamination. The elevated temperature of 19.5  °C of the produced water enables combined use for drinking water and space heating. The environmental benefits are substantial: the emission reduction amounts up to 780 tons/year CO₂ and 1 ton/year SO₂. Received: 21 September 1998 · Accepted: 10 February 1999     

Removal of Pb2+ from aqueous solutions using two Brazilian rocks containing zeolites

The removal of Pb²⁺ from aqueous solution by two Brazilian rocks that contain zeolites—amygdaloidal dacite (ZD) and sandstone (ZS)—was examined by batch experiments. ZD contains mordenite and ZS, stilbite. The effects of contact time, concentration of metal in solution and capacity of Na⁺ to recover the adsorbed metals were evaluated at room temperature (20°C). The sorption equilibrium was reached in the 30 min of agitation time. Both materials removed 100% of Pb²⁺ from solutions at concentrations up to 50 mg/L, and at concentrations larger than 100 mg/L of Pb²⁺, the adsorption capacity of sandstone was more efficient than that of amygdaloidal dacite due to the larger quantities and the type of zeolites (stilbite) in the cement of this rock. All adsorbed Pb²⁺ was easily replaced by Na⁺ in both samples. The analysis of the adsorption models using nonlinear regression revealed that the Sips and the Freundlich isotherms provided the best fit for the ZS and ZD experimental data, respectively, indicating the heterogeneous adsorption surfaces of these zeolites.     

Assessing groundwater vulnerability using travel time and specific surface area as indicators

 A method for general assessment of groundwater vulnerability was developed using the concept of hydrogeological settings by which a small-scale landscape can be represented by larger units on the map. For accidental spills, the time available for remedial actions is crucial. Travel times to the saturated zone or to a depth of 5 m are classified in four intervals, ranging from <1 day to > 1 yr. Total particle surface available for retention of pollutants in the unsaturated zone is used as a semi-quantitative indicator of vulnerability in a long-term perspective. This indicator is classified into four intervals, ranging from <1×10⁶ m²/m² to >25×10⁶ m²/m². The quality of the surfaces is not assessed. However, the absence of an intact soil profile is estimated to result in an increase in vulnerability by one class. Application of the methodology was demonstrated in an area south of Stockholm, Sweden. The digital geological map was processed using GIS to delineate four defined hydrogeological settings and vulnerability classes. Compared with an existing vulnerability map based on stratigraphic zoning, the hydrogeological settings allow a site to be interpreted in its hydrogeological context, and the use of quantitative vulnerability indicators increase the usefulness in practical planning and management. Received, June 1997 · Revised, February 1998 · Accepted, April 1998     

Seepage measurements from Long Lake,Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore

 Long Lake, located near Lake Michigan within the dune-complexes of Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, USA, was formed some time during the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. A surficial aquifer underlies Long Lake, which is either a source or sink for the later. The hydrologic processes in the lakeshore and surrounding environs have been significantly altered during the agricultural, municipal, and industrial development of the region. Limited data suggest that the organisms of Long Lake have elevated levels of several contaminants. This study attempts to quantify seepage within the lake to assess the potential threat to groundwater quality. Seepage measurements and minipiezometric tests were used to determine seepage within the lake. Seepage measurements and minipiezometric tests suggest that water seeps out of Long Lake, thus recharging the groundwater that flows southwest away from the lake. There is a great deal of variability in the seepage rate, with a mean of 11.5×10^–4±11.2×10^–4 m d^–1. The mean seepage rate of 0.3 m yr^–1 for Long Lake is greater than the 0.2 m yr^–1 recharge rate estimated for the drainage basin area. The Long Lake recharge volume of 2.5×10⁵ m³ yr^–1 is approximately 22% of the volume of the lake and is significant when compared to the total surface recharge volume of 4.8×10⁵ m³ yr^–1 to the upper aquifer of the drainage area. There is a potential for contamination of the groundwater system through seepage from the lake from contaminants derived from aerial depositions. Received: 16 August 1995 · Accepted: 18 September 1995     

Biogeochemistry of Major Redox Elements and Mercury in a Tropical Reservoir Lake (Petit Saut,French Guiana)

The hydroelectric reservoir of Petit Saut, French Guiana, was created in 1994–1995 by flooding 350 km² of tropical forest. When sampled in 1999, the lake exhibited a permanent stratification separating the 3–5 m thick, oxygenated epilimnion from the anoxic hypolimnion. The rate of anaerobic organic carbon mineralization below the oxycline was on the order of 1 μmol C m⁻² s⁻¹ and did not show a pronounced difference between wet and dry seasons. Methanogenesis accounted for 76–83% of anaerobic carbon mineralization, with lesser contributions of sulfate reduction and dissimilatory iron reduction. Upward mixing of reduced inorganic solutes explained 90% of the water column O ₂ demand during the dry season, while most O ₂ consumption during the wet season was coupled to aerobic respiration of organic matter synthesized in the surface waters. Inorganic mercury species represented 10–40% of total dissolved mercury in the epilimnion, but were of relatively minor importance (≤10%) in the anoxic portion of the water column. Net production of soluble organic mercury compounds in the flooded soils and anoxic water column did not vary significantly between wet and dry seasons. Methylmercury accounted for about 15% of total dissolved mercury below the oxycline. Its estimated net production rate, 0.04 mg m⁻² yr⁻¹, is of the same order of magnitude as values reported for contaminated lakes and flooded terrestrial ecosystems.     

Hydrogeological and hydrochemical framework of regional aquifer system in Kali-Ganga sub-basin, India

 The central Ganga Basin is one of the major groundwater reservoirs in India. The Kali-Ganga sub-basin is a micro watershed of the central Ganga Basin, containing a number of productive aquifers. A detailed hydrogeological investigation was carried out, which reveals the occurrence of a single-tier aquifer system down to 163 m bgl (metres below ground level), but at places it is interleaved with clay layers; thus imparting it a two-to three-tier aquifer system. These aquifers are unconfined to confined in disposition. The transmissivity, storage coefficient and hydraulic conductivity are determined as 2178 m²/day, 1.12×10^–5 and 120 m/day, respectively. The groundwater of the basin is fresh, of an alkali-bicarbonate type and is suitable for irrigation and domestic use. However, in certain areas, extensive agricultural activities, and domestic and industrial effluents have caused some deterioration of groundwater quality. This study contains data of where the concentration of Fe, Pb, Cd, Cr and Ni are higher than the permissible limits, which may be hazardous to public health. Received: 2 March 2000 · Accepted: 3 July 2000     

Phosphate sorption desorption characteristics of some ferruginous soils of tropical region in Eastern India

Phosphate sorption and desorption experiments were conducted with four ferruginous soils (alfisols) of Eastern India, in view of the low native phosphate concentrations in tropical Indian soils. From the P-isotherm curve, standard P requirement (SPR) of the soils was determined. Phosphate sorption data were fitted to both Langmuir and Freundlich equations and mean sorption maximum values obtained for the different soil series were in the decreasing order as Matimahal > Anandapur > Mrigindih > Kashipur. The fraction of added P sorbed followed the same trend as SPR, P sorption maximum (P_max), phosphate affinity constant (K), maximum phosphate buffering capacity (MPBC), Freundlich constant K′ and phosphate desorption values. Phosphate sorption maximum was significantly correlated with MPBC, Freundlich 1/n, SPR, clay and different forms of Fe and Al. The value of K (bonding energy) was significantly correlated with MPBC, Freundlich K′ and pyrophosphate extractable Fe and Al. The MPBC was significantly correlated with Freundlich K′, Freundlich constant 1/n, clay, oxalate and dithionite extractable, amorphous and crystalline form of Fe and Al. Freundlich K′ was significantly correlated with Freundlich 1/n, pH_water, clay, dithionite extractable and crystalline form of Fe and Al. The results suggested that the soils having higher amount of extractable and reactive Fe and Al shared higher P sorbtion capacity and such soils may need higher levels of P application     

Determining Spatial and Temporal Inputs of Freshwater,Including Submarine Groundwater Discharge,to a Subtropical Estuary Using Geochemical Tracers,Biscayne Bay,South Florida

Geochemical mixing models were used to decipher the dominant source of freshwater (rainfall, canal discharge, or groundwater discharge) to Biscayne Bay, an estuary in south Florida. Discrete samples of precipitation, canal water, groundwater, and bay surface water were collected monthly for 2 years and analyzed for salinity, stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen, and Sr²⁺/Ca²⁺ concentrations. These geochemical tracers were used in three separate mixing models and then combined to trace the magnitude and timing of the freshwater inputs to the estuary. Fresh groundwater had an isotopic signature (δ ¹⁸O = −2.66‰, δD −7.60‰) similar to rainfall (δ ¹⁸O = −2.86‰, δD = −4.78‰). Canal water had a heavy isotopic signature (δ ¹⁸O = −0.46‰, δD = −2.48‰) due to evaporation. This made it possible to use stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen to separate canal water from precipitation and groundwater as a source of freshwater into the bay. A second model using Sr²⁺/Ca²⁺ ratios was developed to discern fresh groundwater inputs from precipitation inputs. Groundwater had a Sr²⁺/Ca²⁺ ratio of 0.07, while precipitation had a dissimilar ratio of 0.89. When combined, these models showed a freshwater input ratio of canal/precipitation/groundwater of 37%:53%:10% in the wet season and 40%:55%:5% in the dry season with an error of ±25%. For a bay-wide water budget that includes saltwater and freshwater mixing, fresh groundwater accounts for 1–2% of the total fresh and saline water input.     

Fracture flow and groundwater compartmentalization in the Rollins Sandstone, Lower Mesaverde Group, Colorado, USA

 This paper presents a site-specific conceptual model of groundwater flow in fractured damage zones associated with faulting in a package of sedimentary rocks. The model is based on the results of field and laboratory investigations. Groundwater and methane gas inflows from fault-fracture systems in the West Elk coal mine, Colorado, USA, have occurred with increasing severity. Inflows of 6, 160 and 500 L s⁻¹ discharged almost instantaneously from three separate faults encountered in mine workings about 460 m below ground level. The faults are about 600 m apart. The δ ²H and δ ¹⁸O compositions of the fault-related inflow waters and the hydrodynamic responses of each fault inflow indicate that the groundwaters discharge from hydraulically isolated systems. ¹⁴C data indicate that the groundwaters are as much as 10,500 years old. Discharge temperatures are geothermal (≈30°C), which could indicate upwelling from depth. However, calculations of geothermal gradients, analysis of solute compositions of groundwater in potential host reservoirs, geothermometer calculations, and results of packer testing indicate that the fractured groundwater reservoir is the Rollins Sandstone (120 m thick) directly beneath the coal seams. The packer test also demonstrates that the methane gas is contained in the coal seams. A geothermal gradient of 70–80°C km⁻¹, related to an underlying intrusion, is probably responsible for the slightly elevated discharge temperatures. Large discharge volumes, as great as 8.2×10⁵m³ from the 14 South East Headgate fault (14 SEHG), rapid declines in discharge rates, and vertical and horizontal permeability (matrix permeability generally <0.006 Darcy) indicate fracture flow. An in-mine pumping test demonstrates that the 14 SEHG fault has excellent hydraulic communication with fractures 50 m from the fault. Aeromagnetic data indicate that the faults are tectonically related to an igneous body that is several thousand meters below the coal seams. Exploratory drilling has confirmed a fourth fault, and two additional faults are projected, based on the aeromagnetic data. The conceptual model describes a series of parallel, hydraulically separate groundwater systems associated with fault-specific damage zones. The faults are about 600 m apart. Groundwater stored in fractured sandstone is confined above and below by clayey layers. Received March 1999 / Revised, November 1999 / Accepted, December 1999     

The relationship between the water table and the surface flow of a losing stream, lower Medano Creek, Great Sand Dunes National Monument, Colorado

 Proposed groundwater withdrawals in the San Luis Valley of Colorado may lower the water table in Great Sand Dunes National Monument. In response, the National Park Service initiated a study that has produced a generalized conceptual model of the hydrologic system in order to assess whether a lowering of the water table might decrease the surface flow of lower Medano Creek. Based upon information obtained during the drilling of several boreholes, there appear to be five important hydrostratigraphic units underlying lower Medano Creek within the upper 30 m of the ground surface: 1. a perched aquifer overlying an aquitard located between about 5 and 6 m below the ground surface; 2. the aquitard itself; 3. an unconfined aquifer located between the upper and lower aquitards; 4. an aquitard located between about 27 and 29 m below the ground surface; and 5. a confined underlying the lower aquitard. Because the areal extent of the aquitards cannot be determined from the borehole data, a detailed conceptual model of the hydrogeologic system underlying lower Medano Creek cannot be developed. However, a generalized conceptual model can be envisioned that consists of a complex system of interlayered aquifers and leaky aquitards, with each aquifer having a unique hydraulic head. Water levels in the perched aquifer rise rapidly to their annual maximum levels in response to the arrival of the flow terminus of Medano Creek during the spring runoff event, and the location of the flow terminus is directly dependent upon the discharge of the creek. Water levels in the deeper, non-perched aquifers do not appear to fluctuate significantly in response to the arrival of the flow terminus, demonstrating that it is unlikely that the proposed groundwater withdrawals will decrease the surface flow of lower Medano Creek. Received: 27 December 1995 · Accepted: 20 February 1996