A correlation between Schmidt hammer rebound numbers with impact strength index,slake durability index and P-wave velocity

The main objective of this study was to establish statistical relationship between Schmidt hammer rebound numbers with impact strength index (ISI), slake durability index (SDI) and P-wave velocity. These are important properties to characterize a rock mass and are being widely used in geological and geotechnical engineering. Due to its importance, Schmidt hammer rebound number is considered as one of the most important property for the determination of other properties, like ISI, SDI and P-wave velocity. Determination of these properties in the laboratory is time consuming and tedious as well as requiring expertise, whereas Schmidt hammer rebound number can be easily obtained on site which in addition is non-destructive. So, in this study, an attempt has been made to determine these index properties in the laboratory and each index property was correlated with Schmidt hammer rebound values. Empirical equations have been developed to predict ISI, SDI and P-wave velocity using rebound values. It was found that Schmidt hammer rebound number shows linear relation with ISI and SDI, whereas exponential relation with P-wave velocity. To check the sensitivity of empirical relations, Student’s t test was done to verify the correlation between rebound values and other rock index properties.     

The effect of specimen diameter size on uniaxial compressive strength,P-wave velocity and the correlation between them

Estimation of uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) by P-wave velocity (V_P) is of great interest to geotechnical engineers in various design projects. The specimen diameter size is one of the main factors that influence rock parameters such as UCS and V_P. In this study, the diameter size of specimens that effect UCS and V_P is investigated. Moreover, the correlation between UCS and V_P are examined via empirical analysis. For this purpose, 15 travertine samples were collected and core specimens with a diameters size of 38, 44, 54, 64 and 74 mm were prepared. Then, uniaxial compressive strength and P-wave velocity tests were conducted according to the procedure suggested by ISRM (1981). It is concluded that the diameter size of the specimen has a significant effect on UCS and V_P. Moreover, it was found that the best correlation between relevant parameters obtained for the specimen diameter of 38 mm.     

超临界CO2注入煤层对顶板岩石纵波速度及力学响应特征研究

深部煤层CO₂地质封存与CH₄强化开采(CO₂–ECBM)技术在提高煤层气采收率的同时可实现碳减排,具有能源和环境双重效益。超临界CO₂(ScCO₂)、水和煤层顶板之间的地球化学反应可改变其物理力学性质,增加CO₂泄漏的风险。以沁水盆地胡底煤矿3号煤层顶板岩石为研究对象,开展“ScCO₂–水–岩”地球化学反应模拟实验,探讨CO₂煤层封存条件下ScCO₂–水–顶板岩样地球化学反应过程及其对岩石纵波速度和力学性质的影响。结果表明:ScCO₂–水–岩之间化学溶蚀反应造成岩样Ca、Mg元素显著降低,促使岩样表面形成孤立状溶蚀孔,并随着反应时间的持续,进而形成大量的“溶蚀坑”和“溶蚀缝”;增加了岩样结构不连续性,使得声波传播路径增大、能量损失加剧,导致纵波波速降低;ScCO₂–水–岩反应后岩样的峰值强度和弹性模量降低,泊松比升高,且三者之间的变化率与反应时间之间呈现Logistic函数的变化关系。对于胡底煤矿而言,ScCO₂–水–岩反应过程中顶板力学性质的弱化不足以造成盖层的破裂和CO₂泄漏,但在评价煤层CO₂封存安全性时,还应考虑煤层吸附膨胀应力对顶板的影响。      

Estimation of uniaxial compressive strength based on P-wave and Schmidt hammer rebound using statistical method

Preparing high-quality samples, which can fulfill testing standards, from weak and block-in-matrix conglomerate for laboratory tests, is a big challenge in engineering projects. Hence, using indirect methods seems to be indispensable for determination uniaxial compressive strength (UCS). The main objective of this study is to estimate the relation between sonic velocity (Vp), Schmidt hammer rebound number (SCH) and UCS. For this reason, some samples of weak conglomeratic rock were collected from two different sites of dam in Iran (Bakhtiari and Hezardareh Formations). In order to evaluate the correlation, the measured and predicted values utilizing simple and multivariate regression techniques were examined. To control the performance of the proposed equation, root mean square error (RMSE) and value accounts for (VAF%) were determined. The VAF% and RMSE indices were computed as 94.34 and 1.56 for the relation between Vp and UCS from simple regression model. These were 94.39 and 1.6 between SCH and UCS, while these were 97.24 and 1.34 for uniaxial compressive strengths obtained from multivariate regression model.     

Deposition of sulfur dioxide to building stones: the influence of the ambient concentration on the deposition velocity

We report on extensive deposition measurements of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) on three types of commonly used building stones (Obernkirchen sandstone, Sand sandstone, Ihrlerstein sandstone). The deposition velocities on the three materials were determined in a number of measuring campaigns at different sites with different levels of air pollution. The measurements clearly imply that there is a strong influence of SO₂ concentration on the deposition velocity. With increasing concentration there is a strong decrease in the deposition velocity. To understand this deposition behavior a simple model with a single rate constant as the only adjustable parameter was established. Rate constants for the three stone materials were determined by least squares analysis and good agreement between experimental and calculated deposition velocities was obtained. According to the model treatment the surface resistance of stone materials increases with increasing SO₂ concentration due to a decrease of the pH in surface films. It follows from the concentration dependence of the deposition velocity that emission control measures for the reduction of ambient SO₂ concentrations do not lead to a proportional reduction of the SO₂ deposition. At low SO₂ concentrations the differences in the deposition behavior of different stone materials diminish and stone surfaces behave like ideal absorbers under such conditions, i.e., the deposition velocity is controlled by the aerodynamic resistance.     

Statistical approach of the influence of petrography in mechanical properties and durability of granitic stones

The influence of petrographic features on the strength of granitic stones is a wide studied topic which finds different correlations depending on the research and the granite type. The aim of this article was to provide an accurate statistical analysis in which the amount of analysed data did not imply any doubt about the representativity of the samples and the accuracy of the results. The focused principal component analysis was used because it allows to explain a determinate property in relation to several variables. In addition, the expression of the results was done as a simple and graphical representation that allowed to interpret the results in a global way. Data of texture, mineralogy and strength of 12 granites were obtained in this study and were completed by those of more than 100 granites obtained from the literature. The durability of the twelve granite characterized was also assessed. A thermal fatigue test was carried out in 5?×?5?×?5 cm cubes revealing that the thermal expansion experimented by the different minerals was enough to produce variations in the crack network even if temperature was lower than the microfissuration threshold.     

不同含水率砂岩单轴压缩力学特性及波速法损伤

为了探究不同含水率砂岩单轴压缩下力学特性及损伤变化情况,首先对5种不同含水率砂岩进行静态单轴压缩实验,获得其物理力学参数;而后利用超声波检测仪测量该5种不同含水率砂岩的波速,将该批次砂岩加载到80%峰值强度后卸载到0,测量此时砂岩声波波速,利用声波法定义损伤,研究含水率对砂岩损伤的影响。结果表明：单轴压缩下,砂岩的峰值强度及弹性模量随含水率升高逐渐降低,而峰值应变变化呈相反趋势;总功及弹性能随含水率增加而下降,耗散能随含水率增加而增大。实验前声波波速随含水率升高逐渐减小,实验后声波波速随含水率升高而下降,且下降趋势较实验前更迅速;砂岩的残余塑性变形和内部损伤均随含水率升高逐渐增大。研究结果可为现场岩石损伤测试提供依据。     

Correlation of Schmidt hardness with unconfined compressive strength and Young''s modulus in gypsum from Sivas (Turkey)

This study aims to express the relationships between Schmidt rebound number (N) with unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and Young's modulus (E_t) of the gypsum by empirical equations. As known, the Schmidt hammer has been used worldwide as an index test for a quick rock strength and deformability characterisation due to its rapidity and easiness in execution, simplicity, portability, low cost and nondestructiveness. In this study, gypsum samples have been collected from various locations in the Miocene-aged gypsum of Sivas Basin and tested. The tests include the determination of Schmidt hammer rebound number (N), tangent Young's modulus (E_t) and unconfined compressive strength. Finally, obtained parameters were correlated and regression equations were established among Schmidt hammer rebound hardness, tangent Young's modulus and unconfined compressive strength, presenting high coefficients of correlation. It appears that there is a possibility of estimating unconfined compressive strength and Young's modulus of gypsum, from their Schmidt hammer rebound number by using the proposed empirical relationships of UCS=exp(0.818+0.059N) and E_t=exp(1.146+0.054N). However, the equations must be used only for the gypsum with an acceptable accuracy, especially at the preliminary stage of designing a structure. Finally, by using the obtained Schmidt hammer rebound number from this study, unconfined compressive strength was calculated and compared with the calculated value from different empirical equations proposed by different authors. It can be said that it is impossible to obtain only one relation for all types of the rocks.     

Porosity and microstructure characterization of building stones and concretes

The microstructure of building materials greatly influences engineering properties like permeability, strength and durability. To determine this microstructure, different techniques were developed, each with its own limitations. The purpose of this study on concrete and natural building stones was to compare and to combine data obtained by X-ray computed micro-tomography (micro-CT), water absorption under vacuum and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). Pore-size distribution curves ranging from 10 nm to 1 mm and total porosity results were obtained. Furthermore, micro-CT revealed the presence of an interfacial transition zone (ITZ) and of micro-cracks inside the aggregates of the concrete samples after mercury intrusion. Micro-CT visualized mercury inside large air bubbles within the concrete samples. Both micro-CT and MIP were compared and their respective advantages and disadvantages discussed.     

Factors influencing determination of shale classification indices and their correlation to mechanical properties

The influence of sample preparation procedure on the measured classification indices such as clay-size fraction, liquid limit, and plastic limit of shales was investigated. Shale samples covering a wide range of composition and plasticity were tested using standard and modified preparation procedures to yield quantitative data required for this investigation. The study specifies the range of shale plasticity in which the measured values of clay-size fraction and liquid limit are sensitive to hydrometer specimen size and rehydration time, respectively. The study also revealed that the degree of shale particle disaggregation has an important influence on the measured clay-size fraction and liquid limit. This influence is maximized for shales with intermediate plasticity and can be interpreted in terms of particle size and shape. Correlations were established between classification indices derived from standard and modified sample preparation procedures. It is recommended to use these correlations to adjust shale classification indices derived from standard sample preparation procedures usually utilized by commercial laboratories. Such correlations help in creating a universally followed procedure for better estimation of shale engineering properties and reliable interpretation of case histories involving shale formations.     

Estimation of uniaxial compressive strength of North Algeria sedimentary rocks using density,porosity, and Schmidt hardness

This study aims to establish new correlations to assess uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of northern Algeria sedimentary rocks. This estimation is based on the measurements of density, porosity, and Schmidt hammer hardness. To achieve this goal, a geological and geotechnical characterization campaign was conducted on 19 types of sandstone and carbonate rocks which have been collected from different geological areas of the Maghrebides chain. Petrographic analyses were conducted to identify the geological characteristics of each kind of rock. Subsequently, physico-mechanical tests (i.e., density, porosity, hardness, and uniaxial compressive strength) were carried out for all the sampled rocks. The results were then used to develop correlations between UCS values and the other parameter values determined. Finally, the UCS predictive equations which have the best predictive powers (coefficient of determination R ² of 0.75 to 0.94) were discussed taking into account the geological specificities of the rocks, and then compared to similar studies developed by other authors in different areas of the world.     

A preliminary analysis of the formation of travertine and travertine cones in the Jifei hot spring,Yunnan, China

The Jifei hot spring emerges in the form of a spring group in the Tibet–Yunnan geothermal zone, southwest of Yunnan Province, China. The temperatures of spring waters range from 35 to 81°C and are mainly of HCO₃–Na·Ca type. The total discharge of the hot spring is about 10 L/s. The spring is characterized by its huge travertine terrace with an area of about 4,000 m² and as many as 18 travertine cones of different sizes. The tallest travertine cone is as high as 7.1 m. The travertine formation and evolution can be divided into three periods: travertine terrace deposition period, travertine cone formation period and death period. The hydrochemical characteristics of the Jifei hot spring was analyzed and compared with a local non-travertine hot spring and six other famous travertine springs. The results indicate that the necessary hydrochemical conditions of travertine and travertine cones deposition in the Jifei area are (1) high concentration of HCO₃ ⁻ and CO₂; (2) about 52.9% deep source CO₂ with significantly high value; (3) very high milliequivalent percentage of HCO₃ ⁻ (97.4%) with not very high milliequivalent percentage of Ca²⁺ (24.4%); and (4) a large saturation index of calcite and aragonite of the hot water.     

New relation between hardness and compressibility of minerals

A relation between hardness (H) for minerals and compressibility (β) is proposed: \(H = \frac{M}{{\rho q\beta }}\) , where M is the molecular weight, ρ the density and q the number of atoms in a formula unit. The relation is derived from thermodynamics and is based on an analogy between mineral hardness and the concept of hardness assumed for the classification of reactivity of molecular species. It is confirmed with 27 elemental solids and 66 crystalline compounds, that this simple relation fairly well describes the trend of experimental hardnesses of minerals, and that the new relation has advantages over one earlier proposed [Plendl et al. (1965)] for connecting hardness to compressibility.     

钙华非经典沉积的纳米生长过程与调控机制初探——以九寨沟—黄龙钙华形成为例

钙华是自然界重要的岩溶碳酸盐沉淀之一,其形成过程往往受到生命活动的影响,弄清钙华生物沉积作用有助于更好地理解钙华微岩相结构和地球化学特征的气候环境指示意义。本文以黄龙-九寨沟钙华形成为例,阐述黄龙-九寨沟现代钙华纳米结晶特征、纳米钙华的生长和集合体形态,分析模拟实验中生物有机质对钙华生长和形貌的调控原因,揭示了生物活动和代谢产物对纳米钙华成核、生长及钙华晶体形貌的调控两途径四阶段机制;为探究钙华成因、碳酸钙生长调控机制、钙华退化的因素及其保护和可持续利用钙华景观具有重要的科学价值。      

苏鲁—大别超高压变质带地壳速度结构及其俯冲、折返机制

三维P波速度解析研究结果表明，苏鲁-大别超高压变质带岩石圈地壳速度结构均具有上地壳明显高速且上凸、中地壳增厚、下地壳埋藏较深且莫霍面下凹等基本特征。与大别地区相比较，苏鲁超高压变质带存在着上地壳波速更高，且地表高速区面积与上地壳高速体体积大于大别；而莫霍面下凹程度不如大别地区，地壳山根已逐步趋向消失等独特的区域特征。显示了苏鲁地区曾发生过更激烈的俯冲与折返构造运动，与大别地区相比，有更多高速、高密度的超高压变质岩折返到上地壳与地表；然而在造山运动过程中比大别更早进入了造山运动后期等特征。对比研究结果表明，苏鲁-大别地段的造山、演化过程中，在构造运动基本相似的背景下，存在着区域性特征。苏鲁地区的造山运动以及超高压变质作用，有起始略晚、发生时期较短但相对激烈、结束早、比大别更早进入了造山运动的后期等特征。笔者分析了苏鲁区域性特征形成的主要构造原因是，郯庐断裂带的大规模左旋走滑运动以及通过中国华北区域的大范围NXV—SE向扩张应力场的影响。其中，中生代以来大华北地区的大区域扩张应力场的影响可能是该区俯冲到地幔内的超高压变质岩能够大量折返回地表或上地壳的重要构造原因。     

钙质砂压缩波速与物理性质参数关系研究

开展钙质砂纵波波速与物理性质参数关系的试验研究,对珊瑚礁地基无损检测及工程物探具有重要的理论指导意义和工程应用价值。控制试样的物性参数状态,利用制样装置进行波速测量,揭示钙质砂纵波波速与物性参数的相关关系。试验结果表明：含水率是影响纵波波速的主要因素,与纵波波速呈二次函数关系。CT扫描结果表明,试样粒径越大,颗粒内部孔隙越丰富,这导致试样孔隙比越大,波速故而越小,与粒径、孔隙比呈负相关关系。在密实度相同、不均匀系数不同时,级配良好的砂样纵波波速差异不大。经过侧限压缩后,含水率一定时,粉土纵波波速与孔隙比呈二次关系,且与密度呈良好的线性关系。利用粉土易压缩且与纵波波速紧密变化的特点,可积极探索声波在粉土地基密实度检测的工程应用。     

The influence of relative humidity on the SO2 deposition velocity to building stones: a chamber study at very low SO2 concentration

We report on a chamber study to determine the influence of SO₂ concentration and relative humidity (RH) on the deposition velocity of SO₂ to a carbonaceous sandstone (Ihrlerstein sandstone) and to two silicate sandstones (Sand sandstone and Obernkirchen sandstone). Two different chambers were used, one operated at constant inlet SO₂ concentration, the other one at constant outlet concentration. Measurements were carried out at realistically low SO₂ concentrations ranging from 15 ppb to 200 ppb. The relative humidity was varied from 45 to 95 %. The measurements confirm a strong influence of concentration on the deposition velocity for all stones investigated. This concentration dependence can be represented using a very simple model with only one rate constant as the only adjustable parameter. A significant influence of the relative humidity on the deposition velocity to the carbonaceous stone is also observed. In contrast, the deposition velocity to the silicate stones is independent of RH. It is demonstrated that the combined influences of concentration and RH on the deposition velocity can be only correctly determined in chambers with constant outlet concentration.     

华南东南部上地幔远震P波速度结构及意义

本研究利用114个固定台站记录的121个远震事件,以钦杭结合带为中心,采用天然地震层析成像构建了华南东南部上地幔P波速度结构模型。研究结果表明：（1）钦杭结合带、武夷成矿带以及南岭成矿带的深部结构存在着差异,说明3个成矿带经历了不同的构造演化过程;（2）江绍断裂的上地幔中存在着低速异常,推测该低速异常为从地幔过渡带或者下地幔上涌的热物质,与钦杭结合带和武夷成矿带的成矿作用有着密切的关系;（3）下扬子地区上地幔底部的高速异常可能为拆沉的岩石圈,而华夏板块上地幔顶部的高速异常则有待进一步研究。本研究的结果为认识华南东南部的深部结构提供了新的证据。     

3-D P-wave velocity structure of the crust beneath the Loess Plateau and surrounding regions of China

The crustal P-wave velocity structure beneath the Loess Plateau and surrounding regions, which is a transition zone between the Tibetan Plateau and the Huabei and Huanan Blocks of China, was tomographically imaged for the first time down to the depth of 80 km. The seismic sources comprised both local and regional earthquakes and the reconstruction was accomplished using a newly developed simultaneous inversion procedure, which solves for both the earthquake hypocentres and the 3-D velocity field. Special features of the procedure include a modified shortest path algorithm for the bent ray tracing, an analytic Jacobian matrix for solution updating, and a damped, minimum norm, constrained non-linear solver based on a CG approach. The velocity structure obtained is more complex than previously thought. The lateral velocity variations are consistent with the U-shaped seismic ring structure but the vertical variations along the Fenwei seismic belt are consistent with the mechanism of the Mountain-Basin generalized system formation. The velocity images of Loess Plateau, the transition zone may help to build a geodynamic mechanism for inland China, to explain the formation of ground fissures so prevalent in the Loess Plateau.