The international decade for natural disaster reduction (IDNDR): A challenge to science

The United Nations proclaimed the 1990s as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). Based on the ‘Tokyo Declaration’—an action plan for the IDNDR formulated by a commission of highly recognized experts—a program was drafted in March 1991 by the International Scientific and Technical Committee for the IDNDR, whose members were appointed by the Secretary General of the United Nations. Based on this international draft program a framework for national scientific programs should be developed by National Committees. The Decade and its translation into actions are briefly reviewed.     

Rainwater and reclaimed wastewater for sustainable urban water use

Concern about the sustainability of urban water use is the strong motivation to understand the potential of rainwater use and water recycling in urbanized cities. The history of water supply in Tokyo and its experience may provide useful information to develop sustainable urban water use and find future possible tasks in rapidly growing cities. Besides, various innovative strategies to meet the current and future water demand in Tokyo may help us to consider new approaches adjusting to the developing mega cities in Asia. In this paper, the past and current practices on utilization of latent water resources such as rainwater and reclaimed wastewater in Tokyo are summarized from the viewpoint of sustainable water use.The storage of rainwater is a useful measure for water demand in emergency cases. In addition, the rainwater use can work as a kind of environmental education to make citizens aware of sustainable urban water use. There are 850 facilities for rainwater use in Tokyo. Since reclaimed wastewater use has several benefits, a huge water volume has been utilized for various purposes such as washing, water-cooling, toilet flushing, waterway restoration and creation of recreational waterfront. From the viewpoint of human health risk, new micropollutants such as estrogens, endocrine disrupters and surfactants should be considered as quality guideline parameter besides the conventional ones. Importance of infiltration facilities should be also highlighted to secure the sound water cycle. Groundwater recharge through the infiltration facilities provide a potential storage of water resource which can be withdrawn in the future if necessary.     

Managing urban water supplies in developing countries - Climate change and water scarcity scenarios

Urban areas of developing countries are facing increasing water scarcity and it is possible that this problem may be further aggravated due to rapid changes in the hydro-environment at different scales, like those of climate and land-cover. Due to water scarcity and limitations to the development of new water resources, it is prudent to shift from the traditional ‘supply based management’ to a ‘demand management’ paradigm. Demand management focuses on measures that make better and more efficient use of limited supplies, often at a level significantly below standard service levels. This paper particularly focuses on the intermittent water supplies in the cities of developing countries. Intermittent water supplies need to be adopted due to water scarcity and if not planned properly, results in inequities in water deliveries to consumers and poor levels of service. It is therefore important to recognise these realities when designing and operating such networks.The standard tools available for design of water supply systems often assume a continuous, unlimited supply and the supplied water amount is limited only be the demand, making them unsuitable for designing intermittent supplies that are governed by severely limited water availability. This paper presents details of new guidelines developed for the design and control of intermittent water distribution systems in developing countries. These include a modified network analysis simulation coupled with an optimal design tool. The guidelines are driven by a modified set of design objectives to be met at least cost. These objectives are equity in supply and people driven levels of service (PDLS) expressed in terms of four design parameters namely, duration of the supply; timings of the supply; pressure at the outlet (or flow-rate at outlet); and others such as the type of connection required and the locations of connections (in particular for standpipes). All the four parameters are calculated using methods and techniques that recognise the relationship between outflow at a water connection and the pressure experienced at that connection. The paper presents a case study where it is demonstrated that the new guidelines can provide an equitable and acceptable level of service throughout the design horizon of the project.     

Alkylbenzenes in mussels from South and South East Asian coasts as a molecular tool to assess sewage impact

Alkylbenzenes, molecular markers of sewage, were measured in 34 green mussels collected from India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and the Philippines together with blue mussels collected from Tokyo Bay, Japan. Linear alkylbenzene (LAB) concentrations in South and South East Asian countries ranged from 10 to 1640 ng-∑LAB/g-dry tissue. In some populous cities, LAB concentrations were similar or higher than those found in northern Tokyo Bay which is heavily impacted by sewage effluents. I/E ratios (a ratio of internal to external isomers of LABs) in the South and South East Asian countries (1–3) were much lower than those in Tokyo Bay (3–8), indicating sewage discharged in the coastal zone is poorly treated (e.g., raw sewage and/or primary effluents). Alkylbenzenes with branched alkyl chains, tetrapropylene-based alkylbenzenes, were also detected in mussels from Indonesia and Philippines. This “tell-tale” sign indicates that poorly degradable detergents are still in use in this area, although they have long been phased-out in many industrialized countries.     

Effects of hypoxia on benthic organisms in Tokyo Bay,Japan: A review

Bottom hypoxia (dissolved oxygen concentration ⩽2 ml l⁻¹) from anthropogenic eutrophication is a growing global concern. Here, we summarized characteristics of hypoxia and its effects on benthic organisms in Tokyo Bay. Despite recent decreases in nutrient inputs, hypoxia has been increasing in duration and spatial extent, suggesting that the substantial loss of tidal flats from reclamation is contributing to a decrease in the ability of Tokyo Bay to recycle nutrients. Hypoxia develops in the central to northern part of the bay and persists from spring to autumn, causing defaunation of benthic organisms. After the abatement of hypoxia in autumn, the defaunated area is recolonized, either through migration or larval settlement. Some megabenthic species with a spawning peak in spring and summer experience failure of larval settlement, which is probably due to hypoxia. The adverse effects of hypoxia are an impediment to recovery of benthic organisms in Tokyo Bay.     

Effects of weak-ends in the ionospheric spread-<Emphasis Type="Italic">F</Emphasis> over a megapolis

The hourly data of Kokubunji (within the Tokyo megapolis) and Akita (the station located in the rural area at a distance of 450 km from Tokyo) Japan vertical sounding stations for 20 years have been used. The observation probability of spread-F, characterizing the presence of large-scale (to several tens of kilometers) inhomogeneities in the ionospheric F region on nights from Saturday to Sunday and from Sunday to Monday (Saturday and Sunday nights) and the remaining nights, have been compared. It has been indicated that, according to the Kokubunji data, the spread-F observation probability on Saturday and Sunday nights is higher than on the working days with 0.95 reliability. It can be assumed that this effect is caused by an increase in the acoustic noise intensity over industrial regions due to an increase in the production intensity on working days. In this case an anthropogenic heating of the ionosphere increases, and diffusion processes responsible for spreading of inhomogeneities in the ionospheric F region intensify. According to the Akita data, such an effect was not observed.     

Water exchange between Tokyo Bay and the Pacific Ocean during winter

Variability in water-exchange time between Tokyo Bay and the Pacific Ocean during winter is investigated based on the results of intensive field observation from November 2000 to March 2001. Water-exchange time between Tokyo Bay and the Pacific Ocean during winter mainly depends on the strength of northerly monsoon, being about 16 days under the weak monsoon and about 12 days under the strong monsoon. Moreover, it becomes longer by about 1 day in spring tide and shorter in neap tide due to the coupling effect of estuarine circulation and vertical mixing. Water-exchange time also varies depending on the open-ocean condition. When the warm water mass approaches from the Pacific Ocean to the mouth of Tokyo Bay through the eastern channel of Sagami Bay, which connects Tokyo Bay and the Pacific Ocean, water-exchange time becomes longer by about 2 days because the warm water mass is blocked in the surface layer at the bay mouth. On the other hand, when the warm water mass approaches to the mouth of Tokyo Bay through the western channel of Sagami Bay, water-exchange time becomes shorter by about 1 day because the warm water mass intrudes into the middle or lower layers of Tokyo Bay. Such different behavior of warm water mass at the mouth of Tokyo Bay is due to the difference in density of approaching warm water masses, that is, the density of the warm water mass through the eastern channel is smaller than that of the warm water mass through the western channel of Sagami Bay.Responsible Editors: Yens Kappenberg     

Geothermal energy

The potential of a geothermal area is primarily dependent on volume and temperature of the reservoir and adequacy of fluid supply. Inadequate fluid supply may be a more common limiting factor than inadequate heat supply, for heat stored in the upper 10,000 ft of many hot spring systems is 1,000 to 10,000 times their annual natural heat flow. Except in very porous reservoirs, most of this heat is stored in rocks rather than in pore fluids. Geothermal fields can be classified as hot spring systems or as deep insulated reservoirs with little surface expression; gradations also exist. Hot spring systems have high near-surface permeability, at least locally on faults and fractures, permitting fluids to escape at high rates. Owing to vigorous circulation and escaping fluids and heat, near-surface temperatures are high, but temperatures deep in the system are lower than would prevail with inhibited escape. Deep reservoirs with little surface expression require permeable reservoir rocks capped by insulating rocks of low permeability. Larderello, Italy, and Salton Sea, California, have slight leakage, but others may have no leakage. Liquid water, which can be at temperatures far above 100° C because of existing pressures, is generally the dominant fluid. Steam can form by boiling as hot water rises to levels of lower pressure. However, in several explored systems the heat supply is so high and rate of discharge of water so low that steam exists even deep in the system. Dry steam areas are probably rare. About 30 areas in the United States have been explored for geothermal energy, but dry steam has been proved only at « The Geysers ». Extensive utilisation of geothermal energy must therefore depend largely upon steam « flashed » from hot water with decrease in pressure. Problems that confront broad utilisation of geothermal energy include: 1) discovery of reservoirs with adequate supply of energy and natural fluids; 2) deposition of CaCO; or SiO₂; 3) chemical corrosion; 4) objectionable chemicals in some effluents; and 5) inapplicability of existing public laws. The optimum environment for a geothermal reservoir includes:

1. 1.
   Potent source of heat, such as a magma chamber. A depth of at least two miles provides enough pressure to insure water of high temperature; 5 miles may be too deep for effective transfer of heat to circulating water. Such heat sources are most likely to occur in regions of late Cenozoic volcanism.     
   
   

近30年来鄱阳湖生态系统服务变化

鄱阳湖是我国最大淡水湖,在维持区域生态安全和生态平衡中发挥重要作用.为了解近30年鄱阳湖生态系统服务变化情况,本文对已有文献与监测数据进行收集整理,直接获取鄱阳湖水资源供给、渔业资源供给、水环境净化服务数据,通过输沙量法、Berger-Parker优势度指数计算泥沙淤积调控和生物多样性维持服务,利用RMSD方法分析19922014年鄱阳湖生态系统服务关系.结果表明:(1)渔业资源供给和水环境净化服务不断下降,水资源供给和泥沙淤积调控服务在2010s有所恢复;(2)冬候鸟种类和数量增加,鱼类种群结构逐渐恢复,但Berger-Parker指数总体上升;(3)浮游植物、底栖动物多样性上升,浮游动物多样性下降;(4)不同时间尺度各服务间均为高权衡关系,水环境净化服务相对收益始终高于其他服务.     

Development of Long-period Ground Motions from the Nankai Trough, Japan, Earthquakes: Observations and Computer Simulation of the 1944 Tonankai (Mw 8.1) and the 2004 SE Off-Kii Peninsula (Mw 7.4) Earthquakes

Strong ground motions recorded in central Tokyo during the 1944 Tonankai Mw8.1 earthquake occurring in the Nankai Trough demonstrate significant developments of very large (>10 cm) and prolonged (>10 min) shaking of long-period (T > 10–12 s) ground motions in the basin of Tokyo located over 400 km from the epicenter. In order to understand the process by which such long-period ground motions developed in central Tokyo and to mitigate possible future disasters arising from large earthquakes in the Nankai Trough, we analyzed waveform data from a dense nation wide strong-motion network (K-NET and KiK-net) deployed across Japan for the recent SE Off-Kii Peninsula (Mw 7.4) earthquake of 5 September 2004 that occurred in the Nankai Trough. The observational data and a corresponding computer simulation for the earthquake clearly demonstrate that such long-period ground motion is primarily developed as the wave propagating along the Nankai Trough due to the amplification and directional guidance of long-period surface waves within a thick sedimentary layer overlaid upon the shallowly descending Philippine Sea Plate below the Japanese Island. Then the significant resonance of the seismic waves within the thick cover of sedimentary rocks of the Kanto Basin developed large and prolonged long-period motions in the center of Tokyo. The simulation results and observed seismograms are in good agreement in terms of the main features of the long-period ground motions. Accordingly, we consider that the simulation model is capable of predicting the long-period ground motions that are expected to occur during future Nankai Trough M 8 earthquakes.     

Bioelectricity generation and remediation of sulfide contaminated tidal flat sediment

A dramatic decrease in the catch of shellfish has been observed due to the high amount of Acid Volatile Sulfide(AVS) in the tidal flats in Japan.In the current study,an evaluation of simultaneous bioelectricity generation and remediation of sulfide contaminated tidal flat sediment has been done.The sediment samples collected from Tokyo Bay and Yamaguchi Bay,Japan,have been used in the laboratory test.A 2 L cylindrical shaped Sediment Microbial Fuel Cell(SMFC) has been used to evaluate the remediation of both sediment samples in the laboratory.Three different electrode materials carbon felt,carbon fiber and bamboo charcoal were used in the experiments to compare their efficiency to reduce the AVS from the sediment and generate bioelectricity.It was observed that the AVS reduction was higher at 5 cm depths for the Tokyo Bay sediment(100%) compared to the Yamaguchi Bay sediment(60%).The larger grain size for the Tokyo Bay sediment was the probable reason for this.The maximum voltage was around 100 and80 mV for Tokyo Bay and Yamaguchi Bay,respectively.     

太阳能供电系统在天津测震台站的应用

利用太阳能供电系统解决天津市部分台站无法接入交流供电的问题,对部分台供电系统进行改造,采用复合式供电模式,避免农忙或雷雨季节停电问题,以提升台网整体数据传输连续率。     

Signal crayfish burrowing,bank retreat and sediment supply to rivers: A biophysical sediment budget

Burrowing into riverbanks by animals transfers sediment directly into river channels and has been hypothesised to accelerate bank erosion and promote mass failure. A field monitoring study on two UK rivers invaded by signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) assessed the impact of burrowing on bank erosion processes. Erosion pins were installed in 17 riverbanks across a gradient of crayfish burrow densities and monitored for 22 months. Bank retreat increased significantly with crayfish burrow density. At the bank scale (<6 m river length), high crayfish burrow densities were associated with accelerated bank retreat of up to 253% and more than a doubling of the area of bank collapse compared with banks without burrows. Direct sediment supply by burrowing activity contributed 0.2% and 0.6% of total sediment at the reach (1.1 km) and local bank (<6 m) scales. However, accelerated bank retreat caused by burrows contributed 12.2% and 29.8% of the total sediment supply at the reach and bank scales. Together, burrowing and the associated acceleration of retreat and collapse supplied an additional 25.4 t km⁻¹ a⁻¹ of floodplain sediments at one site, demonstrating the substantial impact that signal crayfish can have on fine sediment supply. For the first time, an empirical relation linking animal burrow characteristics to riverbank retreat is presented. The study adds to a small number of sediment budget studies that compare sediment fluxes driven by biotic and abiotic energy but is unique in isolating and measuring the substantial interactive effect of the acceleration of abiotic bank erosion facilitated by biotic activity. Biotic energy expended through burrowing represents an energy surcharge to the river system that can augment sediment erosion by geophysical mechanisms.     

Three-dimensional distributions of sewage markers in Tokyo Bay water--fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs)

Three-dimensional distributions of fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs: more specifically, DSBP and DAS1), which are sewage-derived water-soluble markers, were observed in Tokyo Bay water through multi-layer sampling of water at 20 locations. In summer, FWAs predominated in the surface layers, with trace but significant concentration of FWAs in bottom water due to stratification of seawater. In winter, on the other hand, FWAs were extensively mixed into the bottom layers because of the vertical mixing of seawater. In the surface layer, FWA concentrations and the DSBP/DAS1 ratio (the concentration ratio of DSBP to DAS1) were lower in summer than in winter, suggesting more efficient photodegradation of FWAs in euphotic zones during the summer due to stronger solar radiation. Horizontally, FWAs were widely distributed over the surface layer of Tokyo Bay. Surface water with DSBP concentrations above 50ng/L, corresponding to <200 times dilution of sewage effluent, was found to have spread up to 10km from the coastline. In addition, an offshore decline in FWA concentrations was observed, showing a half-distance of 10-20km. The decrease was caused by dilution by seawater of fresh water containing FWAs. The eastern part of the bay was different with respect to surface layers, with higher concentrations seen in northeastern parts. Furthermore, dispersion of combined sewer overflow (CSO)-derived water mass was observed in Tokyo Bay after heavy rain.     

Distributed object‐based software environment for urban system integrated simulation under urban‐scale hazard—Part II: Application

A software prototype of a simulation service software environment, called DOSE (distributed object‐based software environment), is developed to realize the integrated simulation of an urban system under the risk of urban‐scale hazards such as earthquakes. DOSE infrastructure is built on three basic building blocks, namely: modularity, scalability, and interoperability. In this paper, the application of DOSE to real‐world urban systems is described in order to provide an evidence for DOSE modularity and scalability. An overview of DOSE is presented and then followed by a beverage application to simulate earthquake hazard in an urban system. The urban system is developed for the city of Kobe (Kobe district) with dimensions of 700 × 500 (m) and Bunkyo ward (Tokyo district) with dimensions of 800 × 600 (m) where DOSE simulation participants are identified for each district. The effectiveness of data exchange among different participants through a distributed service exchange network is described as an evidence for DOSE modularity that facilitates the integration process. On the other hand, the effectiveness of processing time when applying the simulation to different urban system sizes and/or using different third‐party applications is described as an evidence for DOSE scalability. The details of the underlying infrastructure of DOSE are beyond the scope of this paper and are presented in an accompanying paper work. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Damping characteristics of friction damped braced frame and its effectiveness in the mega-sub controlled structure system

Based on energy dissipation and structural control principle, a new structural configuration, called the mega- sub controlled structure (MSCS) with friction damped braces (FDBs), is first presented. Meanwhile, to calculate the damping coefficient in the slipping state a new analytical method is proposed. The damping characteristics of one-storey friction damped braced frame (FDBF) are investigated, and the influence of the structural parameters on the energy dissipation and the practical engineering design are discussed. The nonlinear dynamic equations and the analytical model of the MSCS with FDBs are established. Three building structures with different structural configurations, which were designed with reference to the conventional mega-sub structures such as used in Tokyo City Hall, are comparatively investigated. The results illustrate that the structure presented in the paper has excellent dynamic properties and satisfactory control effectiveness.     

江苏省测震台站故障特征分析

统计江苏测震台网2013—2017年故障实例,将观测系统分为3个部分:专业观测设备、网络设备、供电及接地。归纳出6大类、19小类的故障类型,故障主要集中在专业仪器自身及其供电装置上,占总数的83%;数据采集器故障率最高,地震计故障中近半数为开锁摆故障;稳压电源故障远多于UPS故障;自2015年起故障率显著增多。建议使用工业级的智能电源,地震计和数据采集器单独供电,更换超过使用寿命的设备,统一全省台站观测装备和配置,改进运维检修模式和应急抢修制度,形成地区性质的建台技术规范或标准,可以进一步降低设备的故障率,减少因故障中断记录的时间。      

A Review of Research and Development of Wind Energy in Turkey

During the end of the 20^th and the beginning of the 21^st centuries, interest has risen in new and renewable energy sources, and especially wind energy for electricity generation. In a short time, wind energy has been welcomed by society, industry and politicians as a clean, practical, economical and environmentally friendly alternative to existing fossil fuels. As a result of extensive studies on this topic, wind energy has recently been applied in various industries, and has started to compete with other energy resources. Wind energy applications and turbine installations at different scales have increased since the beginning of this millennium. Technically installed wind turbines capacity factors have high values in most areas of Turkey. It is seen that, in general, the modeling of wind speed and its parameters have been studied and researched rather than wind power technological development in Turkey. Wind investors had doubts about uncertainties in the renewable energy policies. After May 2007, an energy efficiency law was accepted and 10 years of electricity generation by renewable sources is considered as guaranteed by the Turkish government. The installed wind power has reached 131.35 MW in Turkey and it is expected that this value will be increased to 808.81 MW by the end of 2008. The dependence of strong technological and economical development on Turkey's energy needs have increased and new national or international sources have to be taken into account for the energy sector of the country. It is clear that this source gap could be filled by using the high potential of wind power, which is estimated at 58 GW. It is expected that installed wind power to supply up to 5% of electricity consumption by 2015 and for the end of 2008 this ratio will increase to 2% (it is currently ca. 1.0%). However, unexpected and unpredicted wind power applications have occurred on November 1^st, 2007 in Turkey. It has been announced that 78,000.00 MW wind power investments have been applied by the Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA). This is a new era for the Turkish energy sector and there is no model for this new situation. Therefore, in this paper, wind energy in Turkey is reviewed and opened up for further discussion.     

Liquefaction of soil in the Tokyo Bay area from the 2011 Tohoku (Japan) earthquake

Immediately following the 11th March 2011 M_w 9.0 Tohoku (Japan) earthquake, a field investigation was carried out around the Tokyo Bay area. This paper provides first-hand observations (before or just at the onset of repair) of widespread liquefaction and the associated effects. Observations related to uplift of manholes, settlement of ground, performance of buildings and bridges and the effects of ground improvements are also presented. Recorded ground motions near the Tokyo Bay area were analysed to understand their key characteristics (large amplitude and long duration). Lessons learnt are also presented.     

定点短水准服务程序

介绍了在Windows操作系统下,用Visual Basic 6.0开发的短水准服务程序,叙述了该程序的主要功能和使用方法.指出,该程序经1 a多的试用,运行稳定,解决了小数进位等问题,取得良好效果.